Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C)(l̻)V

C: a consonant
V: a vowel

Allophony

• Non-nasal consonants other than [t͡ʃʼ], i.e. [pʰ g̟ ɗ̻̰ ...], persistently assimilate in voice to a following consonant other than [l̻] and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiced consonant other than [l̻], aspirated stops become unaspirated; fricatives become stops or nasals; [f] become [b]. Before a voiceless obstruent or pause, implosives become non-implosive.
• Non-nasal consonants other than ejective stops [pʰ g̟ d͡z̻ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding non-lateral obstruent or nasal. After a voiceless consonant other than [l̥̻], creaky-voiced implosives become non-implosive. After a voiced consonant other than [l̻], aspirated stops become unaspirated; fricatives become stops or nasals; [f] become [b].
• Voiced vowels [i ũ o ...] become creaky-voiced [ḭ ṵ̃ o̰ ...] before a creaky-voiced implosive.
• [k̟ʰ k̟ g̟] become velar before a velar stop.
• Non-pharyngeal velar stops [kʰ g kʷ ...] become non-velar non-front [k̟ʰ g̟ k̟ ...] after a front vowel. Rounded stops become unrounded.
• Velar stops [kʰ g kʷ ...] become non-velar [k̟ʰ g̟ k̟ ...] before a palatoalveolar obstruent. Rounded stops become unrounded.
• Coronal consonants [n̻ d̻ t͡ʃʼ ...] assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a preceding coronal consonant. After a palatoalveolar obstruent, non-sibilant coronal stops become affricate sibilants; approximants are deleted; [ɗ̻̰] become [t͡ʃʼ].
• Coronal stops [t̻ʰ ɗ̻̰ d͡z̻ ...] become non-affricate and assimilate in place of articulation to a following non-lateral obstruent or nasal. Before a palatoalveolar obstruent or nasal, non-sibilant coronal stops become sibilants; non-affricate stops become affricates; [ɗ̻̰] are deleted. Before [ɲ], stops become velar. Before a palatal or velar stop or nasal, [ɗ̻̰] become [k̟ʼ]. Before a coronal obstruent or nasal, affricates become affricates.
• Stops or nasals [m d̻ʷ t͡s̻ ...] become non-affricate and assimilate in place of articulation between an obstruent or nasal and an obstruent or nasal. After [ɲ], stops other than [k̟ʰ k̟ k̟ʼ g̟] become velar. After a palatoalveolar obstruent or nasal, stops other than affricate sibilants become affricates; non-sibilant coronal stops become sibilants; implosives become non-implosive voiceless. After a coronal obstruent or nasal, affricate sibilants other than alveolar rounded affricates become affricates. After a palatal or velar stop or nasal, implosives become non-implosive voiceless.
• [nʲ̱] persistently become [ɲ] before a palatal nasal.
• Stops [pʰ k̟ʰ d͡z̻ ...] persistently assimilate in glottalisation to a following obstruent. Before a glottalised stop, non-glottalised voiced stops become ejective; aspirated stops become unaspirated.
• Non-glottalised unaspirated voiceless stops [p t̻ʲ t͡s̻ʷ ...] persistently become aspirated [pʰ t̻ʲʰ t͡s̻ʷʰ ...] after an aspirated stop.
• [pʰ p b p̪ʰ p̪ b̪ t̻ʰ t̻ d̻ t̻ʷʰ t̻ʷ d̻ʷ t̻ʲʰ t̻ʲ d̻ʲ k̟ʰ k̟ g̟ kʰ k g kʷʰ kʷ gʷ ɓ ɓ̰ ɓ̪ ɓ̪̰ ɗ̻ ɗ̻̰ ɗ̻ʷ ɗ̻ʷ̰ ɗ̻ʲ ɗ̻ʲ̰ t͡s̻ʰ t͡s̻ d͡z̻ t͡s̻ʷʰ t͡s̻ʷ d͡z̻ʷ t͡s̻ʲʰ t͡s̻ʲ d͡z̻ʲ t͡ʃʰ t͡ʃ d͡ʒ t͡ʃʷʰ t͡ʃʷ d͡ʒʷ t͡ɕʰ t͡ɕ d͡ʑ f s̻ ʃ] assimilate in voice to a following obstruent and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiced stop, aspirated stops become unaspirated; obstruents other than stops become stops; [f] become [b]. Before a voiceless consonant other than [l̥̻] or pause, implosives become non-implosive.
• [ŋ̟ ŋ ŋʷ kʰ k kʼ g kʷʰ kʷ kʷʼ gʷ] become palatal after a front vowel. Stops become velar; rounded stops or nasals become unrounded.
• Non-pharyngeal consonants other than [ɲ k̟ʰ k̟ k̟ʼ g̟], i.e. [m d̻ʷ d͡z̻ ...], assimilate in palatalisation to a following consonant. Before a front stop or nasal, velar stops become non-front; velar rounded stops or nasals become unrounded.
• Non-ejective voiced vowels and non-glottal stop voiced consonants other than [n̻ʲ n̻ʲʷ nʲ̱ nʲʷ̱ l̻ʲ], i.e. [m d̻ d͡z̻ʲ ...], persistently become creaky-voiced [mˤ t̻ʼ t͡s̻ʲʼ ...] after a creaky-voiced implosive. Non-implosive stops become ejective; consonants other than stops become non-glottalised; non-front consonants other than stops become pharyngealised; [ɱʲ] become [ɴ͡m]; [ɲ] become [ɴ]; [mʲ] become [ɴ͡m].
• [ɲ] become [nʲ̱] before a palatoalveolar obstruent or nasal.
• High vowels [i ĩ ṵ ...] become non-high [e ẽ o̰ ...] before a non-near-high vowel or an uvular consonant except a vowel.
• Tense vowels [i ṵ ẽ ...] persistently become lax [ɛ ɔ̰ ɛ̃ ...] before a pharyngealised consonant. High vowels become non-high.
• Non-nasal vowels [i e ɛ̰ ...] become nasal [ĩ ẽ ɛ̰̃ ...] after a nasal vowel.
• Dorsal stops or nasals [ɴ͡m ŋˤʷ k ...] persistently assimilate in uvularity to a following dorsal stop or nasal. Before an uvular nasal, non-back stops or nasals become uvular; [ɲ] become [ɴ].
• Unrounded non-labial velar or uvular back stops or nasals [ŋ kʰ qʰ ...] persistently become rounded [ŋʷ kʷʰ qʷʰ ...] after a high rounded vowel.
• Central low vowels [a a̰ ã ã̰] become non-low front [ɛ ɛ̰ ɛ̃ ɛ̰̃] before a front consonant.
• [ŋ͡m ɴ͡m m mˤ mʲ ɱ ɱˤ ɱʲ n̻ n̻ʷ n̻ˤ n̻ˤʷ n̻ʲ n̻ʲʷ ṉ nʷ̱ nˤ̱ nˤʷ̱ nʲ̱ nʲʷ̱ pʰ p pʼ b pʲʰ pʲ pʲʼ bʲ p̪ʰ p̪ pʼ̪ b̪ pʲ̪ʰ pʲ̪ pʲʼ̪ bʲ̪ t̻ʰ t̻ t̻ʼ d̻ t̻ʷʰ t̻ʷ t̻ʷʼ d̻ʷ t̻ʲʰ t̻ʲ t̻ʲʼ d̻ʲ t̻ʲʷʰ t̻ʲʷ t̻ʲʷʼ d̻ʲʷ ɓ ɓ̰ ɓʲ ɓʲ̰ ɓ̪ ɓ̪̰ ɓʲ̪ ɓʲ̪̰ ɗ̻ ɗ̻̰ ɗ̻ʷ ɗ̻ʷ̰ ɗ̻ʲ ɗ̻ʲ̰ ɗ̻ʲʷ ɗ̻ʲʷ̰ t͡s̻ʰ t͡s̻ t͡s̻ʼ d͡z̻ t͡s̻ʷʰ t͡s̻ʷ t͡s̻ʷʼ d͡z̻ʷ t͡s̻ʲʰ t͡s̻ʲ t͡s̻ʲʼ d͡z̻ʲ t͡s̻ʲʷʰ t͡s̻ʲʷ t͡s̻ʲʷʼ d͡z̻ʲʷ t͡ʃʰ t͡ʃ t͡ʃʼ d͡ʒ t͡ʃʷʰ t͡ʃʷ t͡ʃʷʼ d͡ʒʷ t͡ɕʰ t͡ɕ t͡ɕʼ d͡ʑ t͡ɕʷʰ t͡ɕʷ t͡ɕʷʼ d͡ʑʷ f fʲ s̻ s̻ʲ ʃ ɕ] assimilate in dorsality and uvularity and palatalisation and whether palatal or palatalised velar to a following non-lateral obstruent or nasal and become non-dorsal word-finally. Before [ɲ], non-coronal stops become velar; [mˤ] become [ɴ͡m]; [ɱˤ] become [ɴ͡m]. Before a dorsal stop or nasal, non-coronal implosives become non-implosive; non-coronal creaky-voiced implosives become voiceless; [f fʲ] become [x x]. Before a palatal or velar stop or nasal, coronal palatalised obstruents or nasals become non-back non-dorsal. Before a front obstruent or nasal other than [ɲ] or pause, [mˤ ɱˤ] become [ɴ͡m ɴ͡m]. Before a front obstruent or nasal, coronal pharyngealised nasals become non-pharyngealised. Before an uvular stop or nasal, coronal palatalised obstruents or nasals become non-back non-dorsal.
• Central low vowels [a a̰ ã ã̰] persistently become back [ɑ ɑ̰ ɑ̃ ɑ̰̃] before a pharyngealised consonant.
• Nasals [ɲ͡m m nˤ̱ ...] persistently become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent or nasal. Before a labial palatalised obstruent or nasal, pharyngealised nasals become non-pharyngealised bilabial-velar or uvular back. Before one of [ɲ͡m ɲ͡ɱ], pharyngealised nasals become non-pharyngealised bilabial-uvular. Before [ɲ], pharyngealised nasals become non-pharyngealised uvular. Before a coronal palatalised obstruent or nasal, pharyngealised nasals become non-pharyngealised.
• [k͡p̟ g͡b̟ k͡p g͡b q͡p ɢ͡b k͡p̟̪ g͡b̟̪ k͡p̪ g͡b̪ q͡p̪ ɢ͡b̪ p b pʲ bʲ p̪ b̪ pʲ̪ bʲ̪ t̻ d̻ t̻ʷ d̻ʷ t̻ʲ d̻ʲ t̻ʲʷ d̻ʲʷ k̟ g̟ k g kʷ gʷ q ɢ qʷ ɢʷ ɓ ɓ̰ ɓʲ ɓʲ̰ ɓ̪ ɓ̪̰ ɓʲ̪ ɓʲ̪̰ ɗ̻ ɗ̻̰ ɗ̻ʷ ɗ̻ʷ̰ ɗ̻ʲ ɗ̻ʲ̰ ɗ̻ʲʷ ɗ̻ʲʷ̰ t͡s̻ d͡z̻ t͡s̻ʷ d͡z̻ʷ t͡s̻ʲ d͡z̻ʲ t͡s̻ʲʷ d͡z̻ʲʷ t͡ʃ d͡ʒ t͡ʃʷ d͡ʒʷ t͡ɕ d͡ʑ t͡ɕʷ d͡ʑʷ f fʲ s̻ s̻ʲ ʃ ɕ x̟ x χ] assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent. After a voiceless obstruent, implosives become non-implosive. After a voiced stop, obstruents other than stops become stops; [f fʲ] become [b bʲ].
• Coronal consonants [n̻ t̻ʲʷ d͡z̻ʲʷ ...] assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a following obstruent sibilant. Before a palatoalveolar obstruent, non-sibilant coronal stops become affricate sibilants; implosives become non-implosive; approximants are deleted; creaky-voiced implosives become voiceless.
• Stops [k͡p̟ʰ t̻ ɓʲ̪ ...] assimilate in glottalisation to a preceding obstruent. After a glottalised stop, aspirated stops become unaspirated; non-implosive voiced stops become ejective.

Some words

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