Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C₁)(C₂)V(C₃)

C₁: a consonant other than a retroflex obstruent or nasal (/ɳ̻ ʈ̻ʰ ʈ̻ ɖ̻ ʂ̻ ʐ̻/) or /j/
C₂: a consonant
V: a vowel
C₃: a consonant

Allophony

• Non-back tense vowels and non-velarised tense semivowels [j i e ẽ] become central [ ɨ ɘ ɘ̃] after a non-palatal consonant. [j] are deleted.
• Obstruents [pʰ ʈ̻ v ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following non-nasal consonant other than a semivowel. Before a voiced obstruent, aspirated stops become unaspirated.
• Semivowels [j w] become near-high [ɪ̯ ʊ̯] after a lax vowel.
• Front vowels and semivowels [j ɪ̯ e ...] become non-front [ ɘ ...] before a retroflex obstruent or nasal. Semivowels are deleted.
• Voiceless obstruents [pʰ ʈ̻ʰ t͡ɬ ...] persistently assimilate in aspiration to a following consonant other than a semivowel. Before an aspirated consonant, obstruents other than stops become stops; [f] become [pʰ].
• Near-high semivowels [ɪ̯ ʊ̯] become tense [j w] before a high semivowel.
• Obstruents [pʰ ɖ̻ ʈ͡ʂ̻ʰ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent. After a voiced obstruent, aspirated stops become unaspirated.
• Short voiced fricatives other than [z], i.e. [v ʐ̻ ɣ], become resonants [m ɽ̻ ] between a vowel or semivowel and a vowel or semivowel. Fricatives other than [ʐ̻] become non-labiodental nasal obstruents or nasals.
• Central tense vowels [ɨ ɘ ɘ̃] become front [i e ẽ] before a non-retroflex alveolar obstruent or nasal.
• Coronal consonants [n ʈ̻ ʈ͡ʂ̻ʰ ...] persistently assimilate in laminality to a following coronal consonant.
• Coronal stops [t̻ʰ ɖ̻ t͡ɬʰ ...] become non-affricate and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent or nasal. Before an obstruent or nasal, affricate laterals become non-lateral. Before a coronal obstruent or nasal, affricates other than [ʈ͡ʂʰ ɖ͡ʐ] become affricates.
• [h] are deleted between a vowel or resonant and a vowel or resonant.
• [m n̻ n ɳ pʰ p b p̪ʰ p̪ b̪ t̻ʰ t̻ d̻ tʰ t d ʈʰ ʈ ɖ t͡ɬ̻ʰ t͡ɬ̻ d͡ɮ̻ t͡s̻ʰ d͡z̻ t͡ɬʰ t͡ɬ d͡ɮ t͡sʰ d͡z ʈ͡ɬʰ ʈ͡ɬ ɖ͡ɮ ʈ͡ʂʰ ɖ͡ʐ f v s̻ z̻ s z ʂ ʐ h ɽ] persistently become front before a palatal semivowel. Retroflex consonants become non-front; apical consonants become laminal; alveolar obstruents or nasals become alveopalatal; non-affricate alveolar stops become affricate sibilants.
• Unrounded consonants [m ʈ̻ t͡ɬʲ̱ʰ ...] become rounded [mʷ ʈ̻ʷ t͡ɬʲ̱ʷʰ ...] before a rounded semivowel. Semivowels become velar.
• Non-affricate coronal stops [t̻ʰ d ʈ̻ʷ ...] persistently become affricate sibilants [t͡s̻ʰ d͡z ʈ͡ʂ̻ʷ ...] before a non-nasal coronal fricative.
• Consonants [m ʈʰ ʈ͡ʂʷ ...] assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent or nasal. After a voiced obstruent or nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated; [hʲ hʲʷ] become [j w]. After a voiceless obstruent, nasals become non-nasal; [nʲ̱ nʲ̱ʷ] become [t͡ɕ t͡ɕʷ].
• Unaspirated voiceless obstruents [p t͡ɬ̻ t͡ɕ ...] become aspirated [pʰ t͡ɬ̻ʰ t͡ɕʰ ...] after an aspirated consonant. Obstruents other than stops become stops; labiodental obstruents other than stops become bilabial.
• Consonants [m ɖ t͡ɬʲ̱ʷʰ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following consonant other than a resonant and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiced obstruent or nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated; [hʲ hʲʷ] become [j w]. Before a voiceless consonant other than a resonant or pause, nasals become non-nasal; [nʲ̱ nʲ̱ʷ] become [t͡ɕ t͡ɕʷ].
• Non-retroflex coronal obstruents or nasals [n̻ t͡ɬ̻ʷ d͡ɮʲ̱ ...] persistently become retroflex [ɳ̻ ʈ͡ɬ̻ʷ ɖ͡ɮ̻ ...] after a retroflex consonant. Alveopalatal obstruents or nasals become non-front.
• Voiceless glottal fricatives [h hʷ hʲ hʲʷ] become stops and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent or nasal.
• Voiceless glottal fricatives [h hʷ hʲ hʲʷ] persistently become uvular fricatives [kʰ kʷʰ kʰ kʷʰ] before a voiceless obstruent.
• Unrounded consonants [m ʈ t͡ɬʲ̱ ...] become rounded [mʷ ʈʷ t͡ɬʲ̱ʷ ...] after a rounded consonant. Semivowels become velar.
• Coronal consonants [n̻ t͡s̻ʰ ɖ͡ʐʷ ...] assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a following coronal obstruent other than a non-affricate stop or nasal. Before a retroflex obstruent other than a non-affricate stop or nasal, alveopalatal obstruents or nasals become non-front. Before an alveopalatal laminal obstruent, [ɳ ɳʷ tʰ t d tʷʰ tʷ dʷ ʈʰ ʈ ɖ ʈʷʰ ʈʷ ɖʷ ʈ͡ɬʰ ʈ͡ɬ ɖ͡ɮ ʈ͡ɬʷʰ ʈ͡ɬʷ ɖ͡ɮʷ ʈ͡ʂʰ ʈ͡ʂ ɖ͡ʐ ʈ͡ʂʷʰ ʈ͡ʂʷ ɖ͡ʐʷ ʂ ʐ ʂʷ ʐʷ] become [n nʷ t͡sʰ t͡s d͡z t͡sʷʰ t͡sʷ d͡zʷ t͡sʰ t͡s d͡z t͡sʷʰ t͡sʷ d͡zʷ t͡ɬʰ t͡ɬ d͡ɮ t͡ɬʷʰ t͡ɬʷ d͡ɮʷ t͡sʰ t͡s d͡z t͡sʷʰ t͡sʷ d͡zʷ s z sʷ zʷ]; non-affricate stops become affricate sibilants; rounded taps become non-coronal velar semivowels; unrounded taps become non-coronal palatal semivowels.

Some words

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