Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C₁)V(C₂)

C₁: a consonant
V: a vowel
C₂: a consonant

Allophony

• Consonants [m t d͡ʒ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following consonant other than a resonant and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiced stop or nasal, [ʔ] are deleted. Before a voiceless consonant or pause, nasals become non-nasal.
• Nasals [m n ɲ ŋ] become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent.
• Obstruents [p c d͡ʒ ...] assimilate in voice to a following non-nasal consonant other than a resonant.
• Obstruents other than [s ʃ], i.e. [p c t͡ʃ ...], become ejective [pʼ cʼ t͡ʃʼ ...] before a non-nasal glottal stop. Voiced stops become ejective; obstruents other than stops become non-ejective; obstruents other than stops become implosive.
• Nasals [m n ɲ ...] assimilate in resonancy and nasality to a preceding unrounded non-nasal consonant other than [j̥ j]. After a resonant lateral, [ŋ] are deleted; [m] become [w]; [ṉ] become [j]. After [ʔ], [ṉ] become [j]; [m] become [w]. After an obstruent, [ṉ] become [d͡ʒ].
• Bilabial stops or nasals [m p pʼ b] become palatalised [mʲ pʲ pʲʼ bʲ] before a palatal stop or nasal.
• Non-implosive obstruents other than [s ʃ], i.e. [p t kʼ ...], assimilate in glottalisation to a preceding non-nasal consonant other than a resonant. After an ejective consonant, voiced stops become ejective; obstruents other than stops become non-ejective; obstruents other than stops become implosive.
• Short non-ejective non-glottal fricative voiceless stops [p t k ...] become voiced [b d g ...] between a voiced phone and a voiced phone.
• Unrounded consonants other than palatal consonants [m bʲ s ...] persistently assimilate in palatalisation to a following consonant and become non-front word-finally.
• Palatal semivowels [j̥ j] become velar rounded [w̥ w] before a rounded semivowel.
• Consonants other than ejective stops [m ɟ z˂ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent or nasal. After a voiced obstruent or nasal, glottal stops become non-ejective palatal or velar. After a voiceless obstruent, nasals become non-nasal; implosive fricatives become non-implosive; [ṉ nʲ̱] become [t͡ʃ t͡ɕ].
• Alveolar resonants [ɾ̥ ɾʲ̥ l̥ ...] persistently assimilate in vibrancy to a following alveolar resonant.
• Non-ejective non-glottal fricative obstruents [p ɟ sʲ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent. After a voiceless obstruent, implosive fricatives become non-implosive.
• Non-affricate alveolar stops [t d tʲʼ ...] become affricate sibilants [t͡s d͡z t͡sʲʼ ...] before a non-nasal coronal fricative.
• Coronal consonants [n t͡ʃ ʑ˂ ...] persistently assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a following obstruent sibilant. Before a palatoalveolar obstruent, resonants become non-coronal palatal or velar; taps become semivowels; resonant laterals become non-lateral; non-palatalised resonants become palatal; non-affricate stops become affricate sibilants.
• Front vowels and semivowels [j̥ i ɛ ...] become central [ ɨ ɜ ...] before a velar semivowel. Semivowels are deleted.
• Voiced obstruents or nasals other than implosive fricatives or [z̻ zʲ̻ zʲ ʑ ʒ̺ ʑ̺], i.e. [m nʲ̱̺ d͡z̻ ...], persistently become creaky-voiced [m̰ nʲ̱̺̰ t͡s̻ʼ ...] before a glottal stop. Fricatives become non-glottalised; stops become ejective; fricatives become implosive.
• Creaky-voiced nasals [m̰ n̰ ṉ̺̰ ...] persistently become non-glottalised [m n ṉ̺ ...].
• Coronal consonants [n̻ t͡s ʑ ...] persistently assimilate in laminality to a following coronal consonant. Before a laminal obstruent or nasal, palatalised taps become non-front.
• Non-lateral non-nasal coronal consonants [t̻ t͡ʃ ʒ̺ ...] persistently become laterals [t͡ɬ̻ t͡ɬ̱ ɮ̱̺ ...] before an alveolar resonant lateral. Obstruent sibilants become non-sibilant coronal; non-sibilant coronal stops become affricates.
• Non-front vowels [ɨ ũ ɔ ...] persistently become front [i ĩ ɛ ...] before a front consonant. Rounded vowels become unrounded.
• Front low vowels [æ æ̃] become central [a ã].
• Non-front vowels [ɨ ũ ɔ ...] become front [i ĩ ɛ ...] before a front consonant. Rounded vowels become unrounded.

Some words

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