Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C₁)V(C₂)

C₁: a consonant other than /ɲ/
V: a vowel
C₂: a sonorant other than /ʔ/; i.e. one of /m n ɲ ŋ h/

Allophony

• Central high vowels [ɨ ɨː ʉ ʉː] become front [i iː y yː] before a palatal consonant.
• Obstruents other than [v z ɣ], i.e. [^mb t t͡s ...], become aspirated [pʰ tʰ t͡sʰ ...] before a glottal fricative or word-finally. Voiced stops become voiceless; prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised.
• Nasals [m n ɲ ŋ] persistently become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent.
• Non-pharyngeal unrounded non-palatal non-alveolar consonants [m p fʰ ...] become front [mʲ pʲ fʰʲ ...] before a palatal consonant.
• Stops [^mb pʰʲ ɟ ...] persistently become ejective [pʼ pʲʼ cʼ ...] before a non-nasal glottal stop or word-finally. Voiced stops become ejective; prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised; aspirated stops become unaspirated.
• Unrounded velar obstruents or nasals [ŋ k xʰ ...] become non-velar [ŋ̟ k̟ x̟ʰ ...] before a non-retroflexed alveolar consonant.
• Non-labial consonants other than [w], i.e. [n ɟ s ...], assimilate in rounding to a following consonant and become unrounded word-finally. Before a rounded consonant, non-velar palatal or velar consonants become velar; front consonants become non-front; [ʔ ʔʲ] become [w w]; [h hʲ] become [w̥ w̥].
• Semivowels [j w̥ w] become mid-high [e̯ o̯̥ o̯] before a lax vowel.
• Non-back semivowels [j e̯] become rounded [w o̯] after a rounded vowel or semivowel.
• Front vowels and semivowels [j iː ɛ ...] become central [w ɨː ɜ ...] before a back semivowel. Semivowels become rounded back.
• Labial obstruents or nasals [m pʰ bʲ ...] assimilate in labiodentality to a following labial obstruent or nasal.
• Back low vowels [ɑ ɑː ɒ ɒː] become mid-low [ʌ ʌː ɔ ɔː] after a semivowel.
• Back vowels [ɯ ʌ ɑ ...] become central [ɨ ɜ a ...] before a front semivowel. [ɒ ɒː] become [a aː].
• Non-front vowels [ɨ uː ɔ ...] assimilate in backness or velarisation to a following semivowel. Before one of [j e̯], [ɒ ɒː] become [a aː].
• Non-ejective obstruents other than aspirated stops [^mb c v ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following non-nasal consonant other than resonant and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiceless consonant other than a resonant, prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised. Before a voiced obstruent, aspirated fricatives become unaspirated.
• Non-front vowels [ɨ uː ɔ ...] assimilate in backness or velarisation to a following mid-high semivowel. Before [e̯], [ɒ ɒː] become [a aː].
• Stops [^mb p̪ʼ k̟ʼ ...] persistently assimilate in glottalisation to a preceding consonant other than resonant. After an ejective consonant, voiced stops become ejective; prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised; aspirated stops become unaspirated.
• Non-ejective unaspirated obstruents other than [β βʲ v vʲ z zʷ ʝ ɣ̟ ɣ ɣʷ], i.e. [^mb b̪ ⁿd͡z ...], persistently become aspirated [pʰ pʰ̪ t͡sʰ ...] after an aspirated consonant. Voiced stops become voiceless; prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised.

Some words

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