Phonemic inventory
Consonants
| | Labial | | Alveolar | | Pal. / vel. | | Glottal |
Nasal | | | | m | | | | n | | | | ŋ | | | | |
Stop | | pʰ | p | ɓ̰ | | tʰ | t | ɗ̰ | | kʰ | k | | | | | |
Fricative | | | f | | | | s | | | | | | | h | | |
Approximant | | | | ʋ | | | | l | | | | j | | | | |
Vowels
| | Front | | Central | | Back |
High | | i | y | | | | | | u |
Mid-high | | e | ø | | | | | | o |
Low | | | | | a | | | | |
Syllable structure
(C1)V(C2)
C1: a consonant
V: a vowel
C2: a sonorant; i.e. one of /m n ŋ h/
Allophony
- Labial consonants [m p f ...] assimilate in labiodentality to a following labial consonant.
- Unaspirated non-implosive stops [p p̪ t k] become aspirated [pʰ pʰ̪ tʰ kʰ] after an aspirated consonant.
- Velar stops or nasals [ŋ kʰ k] become uvular [ɴ qʰ q] after a back vowel.
- [ŋ kʰ k] become non-back before a non-retroflexed alveolar consonant.
- Velar or uvular stops or nasals [ŋ̟ kʰ̟ k ...] assimilate in uvularity to a following dorsal consonant other than [j]. Before an uvular stop or nasal, fronted stops or nasals become uvular.
- Stops [pʰ t qʰ ...] assimilate in glottalisation to a following non-nasal consonant other than an approximant and become non-glottalised word-finally. Before an implosive, aspirated stops become unaspirated.
- Before a high tense vowel or semivowel, velar or uvular stops become non-nasal glottal fricatives; glottalised stops other than [tʼ] become non-glottalised non-nasal affricates; unaspirated velar or uvular stops become non-nasal glottal fricatives; labial voiceless stops become non-nasal fricatives; implosives become non-nasal resonants; back stops become non-back non-nasal glottal fricatives; bilabial stops become non-bilabial non-nasal affricates; non-sibilant coronal voiceless stops become non-nasal affricate sibilants; [pʰ pʰ̪] become [f f].
- Voiced vowels [i u ø ...] persistently become creaky-voiced [ḭ ṵ ø̰ ...] after a creaky-voiced implosive.
- [ɓ ɓ̪ ɗ i y u e ø o a] become creaky-voiced before a creaky-voiced implosive.
- Stops or nasals other than obstruent sibilants [m p̪ kʼ ...] are persistently deleted between an obstruent and an obstruent.
- Between a vowel or resonant and a vowel or semivowel, non-glottalised implosives become short non-glottalised non-nasal voiced resonants; [ɓ] become [ʋ].
- Non-pharyngeal non-back consonants other than [kʰ̟ k̟ kʼ̟ j], i.e. [m tʰ t͡s ...], persistently become front [mʲ tʲʰ t͡sʲ ...] before a palatal semivowel. [h] become [j].
- Consonants [m t ɗʲ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following obstruent or nasal. Before a voiced stop or nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated; non-implosive ejective stops become non-glottalised; fricatives become stops or nasals; [f fʲ] become [b bʲ]. Before an obstruent, implosives become non-implosive; nasals become non-nasal; [ɲ] become [k̟].
- Labial obstruents or nasals [m pʼʲ ɓ̰ ...] assimilate in dorsality and uvularity and palatalisation and whether palatal or palatalised velar to a following obstruent or nasal. Before a palatal or velar stop or nasal, [mʲ ɱ ɱʲ b pʲʰ pʲ pʼʲ bʲ pʰ̪ p̪ pʼ̪ b̪ pʲʰ̪ pʲ̪ pʼʲ̪ bʲ̪ ɓʲ ɓ̰ʲ ɓ̪ ɓ̰̪ ɓʲ̪ ɓ̰ʲ̪ ɸ ɸʲ fʲ] become [m m m p pʰ p pʼ p pʰ p pʼ p pʰ p pʼ p ɓ ɓ̰ ɓ ɓ̰ ɓ ɓ̰ f f f]. Before a dorsal stop or nasal, labiodental stops or nasals become bilabial; non-implosive voiced stops become voiceless; [ɸ ɸʲ] become [f f]. Before an uvular stop or nasal, [mʲ ɱ ɱʲ b pʲʰ pʲ pʼʲ bʲ pʰ̪ p̪ pʼ̪ b̪ pʲʰ̪ pʲ̪ pʼʲ̪ bʲ̪ ɓʲ ɓ̰ʲ ɓ̪ ɓ̰̪ ɓʲ̪ ɓ̰ʲ̪ ɸ ɸʲ fʲ] become [m m m p pʰ p pʼ p pʰ p pʼ p pʰ p pʼ p ɓ ɓ̰ ɓ ɓ̰ ɓ ɓ̰ f f f].
- [h] are deleted before an obstruent.
- Before an alveolar approximant lateral, obstruent sibilants become non-sibilant coronal alveolar obstruent laterals; non-sibilant coronal non-implosive stops become alveolar affricate laterals; non-labial implosives become alveolar approximant laterals; [ɗ̰ ɗ̰ʲ] become [l lʲ].
- Non-glottalised consonants [m dʲ d͡zʲ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding non-nasal consonant other than a resonant. After a voiced stop, aspirated consonants become unaspirated; fricatives become stops or nasals; [f fʲ] become [b bʲ]. After a voiceless consonant other than a resonant, nasals become non-nasal; implosives become non-implosive; [ɲ] become [k̟].
- Non-nasal consonants [pʰ kʼ t͡sʲʰ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following non-nasal consonant other than a resonant. Before a voiced stop, aspirated consonants become unaspirated; ejective stops become non-glottalised; fricatives become stops; [f fʲ] become [b bʲ]. Before a voiceless consonant other than a resonant, implosives become non-implosive.
- Short non-nasal voiced consonants [b ɓʲ d͡ɮʲ ...] become voiceless [p pʲ t͡ɬʲ ...] after a voiceless aspirated consonant. Implosives become non-implosive.
- Short non-nasal voiced consonants [b ɓʲ d͡ɮʲ ...] become voiceless [p pʲ t͡ɬʲ ...] after a voiceless aspirated consonant. Implosives become non-implosive.
- Front vowels and semivowels [j̥ ḭ e ...] become non-front [ɰ̟̥ ɨ̰ ɘ ...] before an uvular stop or nasal.
- Front vowels and semivowels [j̥ ḭ e ...] become non-front [ɰ̟̥ ɨ̰ ɘ ...] before an uvular stop or nasal.
- Nasals [m ɱʲ ɲ ...] become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent.
Some words
/ŋekʰe/ | [ŋekʰe] |
/ninhyh/ | [ninhyh] |
/jyɗ̰am/ | [jy̰ɗ̰a̰m] |
/kimkiŋa/ | [himhiŋa] |
/mehekʰu/ | [mehehu] |
/ŋahum/ | [ŋahum] |
/kija/ | [hija] |
/pʰaŋaŋy/ | [pʰaŋaŋy] |
/senjin/ | [senʲjin] |
/hikøn/ | [hikøn] |
/niɗ̰en/ | [nḭɗ̰ḛn] |
/kønsa/ | [køtsa] |
/kʰalu/ | [kʰalu] |
/heji/ | [heji] |
/ŋuko/ | [ŋuqo] |
/husoŋ/ | [husoɴ] |
/hekufam/ | [hehufam] |
/hakʰe/ | [hakʰe] |
/ŋaɗ̰ankʰom/ | [ŋa̰ɗ̰a̰tkʰom] |
/sumjo/ | [sumʲjo] |
/kʰøse/ | [kʰøse] |
/janɗ̰i/ | [janɾi] |
/amhu/ | [amhu] |
/fymjem/ | [fymʲjem] |
/haki/ | [hahi] |
/naŋu/ | [naŋu] |
/tiŋsi/ | [t͡sik̟si] |
/najam/ | [najam] |
/jale/ | [jale] |
/ŋomhantan/ | [ŋomhattan] |
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