Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C₁)V(C₂)

C₁: a consonant
V: a vowel
C₂: a sonorant other than /ʔ/; i.e. one of /m n̻ ɳ ɲ ŋ h l̻ j w/

Allophony

• Unaspirated stops [p c t͡s̻ ...] persistently become aspirated [pʰ cʰ t͡sʰ̻ ...] before a glottal fricative.
• Vowels and semivowels [j u o ...] become nasal [j̃ ũ õ ...] after a nasal.
• Stops [pʰ cʰ t͡sʰ̻ ...] persistently assimilate in aspiration to a following consonant other than an approximant and become word-finally.
• Unaspirated stops [p c t͡s̻ ...] become aspirated [pʰ cʰ t͡sʰ̻ ...] after an aspirated consonant.
• Coronal consonants other than [l̻], i.e. [n̻ t̻ t͡ɬ̱ʰ ...], persistently assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a following laminal consonant other than a non-affricate stop or nasal or [l̻]. Before one of [t͡ɬ̱ʰ t͡ɬ̱ ʃ], [tʰ̻ t̻] become [t͡ɬ̱ʰ t͡ɬ̱].
• Before a palatal stop or nasal, [ɳ] become [nʲ̱]. Before a palatal or velar stop or nasal, non-palatal or velar obstruents or nasals become non-velar non-palatal or velar obstruents or nasals; [n ṉ̺] are deleted.
• High semivowels [j̃ w̃ j w] become mid-high [ẽ̯ õ̯ e̯ o̯] after a non-high vowel.
• Consonants [m tʲ̻ t͡ʃ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding consonant other than an approximant. After a nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated; [ʔ] become [ʕ].
• Consonants [m̥ tʲ̻ d͡ʑ ...] assimilate in voice to a preceding consonant other than an approximant. After a voiceless consonant other than an approximant, [ʕ] become [hˤ]. After a voiced consonant other than an approximant, aspirated consonants become unaspirated; [ʔ] become [ʕ].
• Front vowels and semivowels [j̥̃ j ɪ ...] become non-front [ŋ̟ x̟ ɪ̈ ...] before a retroflex nasal. Semivowels become obstruents or nasals; mid-high semivowels become back; [j̥̃ ẽ̥̯] become [ŋ̟ ɴ]; [j e̯] become [x̟ χ].
• High vowels and semivowels [j̥̃ w̥ ũ ...] persistently become non-high [ẽ̥̯ o̥̯ õ ...] after a pharyngeal.
• Approximants [j̥̃ õ̥̯ w̥ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding consonant other than an approximant.
• Nasals [m̥ n̥ n̥̱̺ ...] become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent.
• Non-front vowels and velar or uvular semivowels [w̥̃ ɨ ɘ̃ ...] assimilate in backness or velarisation to a following non-coronal semivowel. Before a front semivowel, semivowels become unrounded obstruents or nasals; back vowels become unrounded; mid-high semivowels become back; [w o̯] become [x̟ χ]; [w̥̃ õ̥̯] become [ŋ̟ ɴ]. Before a rounded semivowel, non-low central vowels become rounded.
• Tense vowels and semivowels [j̥̃ j ɨ ...] persistently become lax [ɪ̥̯̃ ɪ̯ ɪ̈ ...] before a pharyngeal.
• Central vowels [ɨ ɪ̈̃ ɜ ...] become front [i ɪ̃ ɛ ...] before a front consonant.
• Non-retroflex coronal consonants other than alveopalatal obstruents or nasals [n̥̻ tʲ̻ t͡ɬ̱ʰ ...] persistently become retroflex [ɳ̥̻ t͡ɬʲ̱ ʈ͡ɬ̻ʰ ...] after a retroflex nasal. Palatalised obstruents or nasals become palatoalveolar; [tʲʰ̻ tʲ̻ dʲ̻] become [t͡ɬʲ̱ʰ t͡ɬʲ̱ d͡ɮʲ̱].
• Unrounded non-front non-labial consonants [n̥̻ d̻ t͡ɬ̱ʰ ...] become rounded [n̥ʷ̻ dʷ̻ t͡ɬʷ̱ʰ ...] before a rounded semivowel.
• Consonants [m̥ ʈ̻ vʲ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following obstruent or nasal. Before a voiceless obstruent or nasal, [ʕ ʕʷ] become [hˤ hʷˤ]. Before a voiced obstruent or nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated; glottal stops become non-glottal stop pharyngeals.
• Coronal consonants [n̥̻ ʈ̻ t͡ɬʷ̱ʰ ...] persistently assimilate in laminality to a following coronal consonant.
• Voiceless aspirated radicals [hˤ hʷˤ h hʷ] become stops and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent. Before a front obstruent, pharyngeals become non-front.
• Non-nasal consonants other than semivowels [pʰ d͡z̻ t͡ɬʲʰ̱̺ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following non-nasal consonant other than an approximant and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiceless consonant other than an approximant or pause, [ʕ ʕʷ] become [hˤ hʷˤ]. Before a voiced consonant other than an approximant, aspirated consonants become unaspirated; glottal stops become non-glottal stop pharyngealised.
• Obstruents [pʰ qʷʰ t͡ɬʲ̱ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following consonant other than an approximant and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiced consonant other than an approximant, aspirated stops become unaspirated.
• Front vowels and semivowels [j̥̃ j̥ ĩ ...] persistently become non-front [ŋ̟ x̟ ɨ̃ ...] after a retroflex consonant. Semivowels become obstruents or nasals; mid semivowels become back; non-nasal voiced semivowels become voiceless; nasal voiceless semivowels become voiced.
• Voiceless aspirated radicals [hˤ hʷˤ h hʷ] become unaspirated velar or uvular back fricatives [xˤ xʷˤ x xʷ] before a non-labial obstruent.
• Non-affricate coronal stops [tʰ̻ tʷʰ ʈ̻ˤʰ ...] become affricate sibilants [t͡sʰ̻ t͡sʷʰ ʈ͡ʂ̻ˤʰ ...] before a non-nasal coronal fricative.

Some words

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