Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C₁)V(C₂)

C₁: a consonant
V: a vowel
C₂: one of /m n ɳ̻ ɲ ŋ p t ʈ̻ k g ɓ̰ ɗ̰ ɗ̢̻̰ s ʂ̻ ʃ x h hː j w jː wː/

Allophony

• Non-nasal consonants [p ɓ̰ ʒ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent or nasal. After a voiced obstruent or nasal, glottal fricatives are deleted. After a voiceless obstruent, creaky-voiced implosives become non-creaky-voiced non-implosive.
• Non-nasal consonants [p ɗ̰ h ...] assimilate in voice to a preceding consonant other than a semivowel. After a voiceless consonant other than a semivowel, creaky-voiced implosives become non-creaky-voiced non-implosive. After a voiced obstruent or nasal, glottal fricatives are deleted.
• Voiceless stops [p t ʈ̻ k] become aspirated [pʰ tʰ ʈʰ̻ kʰ] before a glottal fricative.
• Non-retroflex coronal obstruents or nasals [n d z ...] become retroflex [ɳ ɖ ʐ ...] after a retroflex obstruent or nasal.
• [ɲ] become [ṉʲ] before a palatoalveolar fricative.
• Velar fricatives [x ɣ] become non-velar non-palatal or velar labiodental [f v] before a coronal obstruent or nasal.
• Coronal obstruents or nasals [n ʈ̻ s ...] persistently assimilate in laminality to a following coronal obstruent or nasal. Before an apical obstruent or nasal, [ʃ ʒ] become [ʂ̻ ʐ̻]; [ṉʲ] become [ɳ̻].
• Obstruents [pʰ ʈʰ v ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent. After a voiceless obstruent, implosives become non-creaky-voiced non-implosive. After a voiced obstruent, aspirated stops become unaspirated.
• Non-nasal consonants [pʰ kʰ ʂ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following consonant other than a semivowel. Before a voiceless consonant other than a semivowel, creaky-voiced implosives become non-creaky-voiced non-implosive. Before a voiced obstruent or nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated.
• Back vowels [u o] become central [ʉ ɵ] before a palatal semivowel.
• Central rounded vowels [ʉ ɵ] persistently become front [y ø] before a front consonant.
• Front vowels and semivowels [j̥ jː e ...] become non-front [h ɘ ...] after a retroflex obstruent or nasal. Semivowels become glottal fricatives.
• Coronal obstruents or nasals [n̻ d ɗ̢̰ ...] assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a following fricative sibilant. Before a retroflex fricative sibilant, [ṉʲ] become [ɳ̻]. Before one of [ʃ ʒ], apical obstruents or nasals become retroflex laminal.
• Velar obstruents or nasals [ŋ k x ...] become uvular [ɴ q χ ...] before a non-front vowel or a velar or uvular semivowel.
• Nasals [m ɳ̻ ṉʲ ...] persistently become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent or nasal.
• [ṉʲ] persistently become [ɲ] before a palatal nasal.
• Short non-nasal voiced consonants [b ɓ̰ z ...] become voiceless [p p s ...] after a voiceless aspirated consonant. Creaky-voiced implosives become non-creaky-voiced non-implosive.
• Coronal obstruents or nasals [n̻ ʈʰ̻ ɗ̢̰ ...] assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a preceding postalveolar obstruent or nasal. After a retroflex obstruent or nasal, [ṉʲ] become [ɳ̻]. After a palatoalveolar obstruent or nasal, apical obstruents or nasals become retroflex laminal.
• Central vowels [ɨ ʉ ɵ ...] persistently become back [ɯ u o ...] after an uvular obstruent or nasal.
• Non-back vowels and non-velarised semivowels [j̥ i ø ...] assimilate in frontness or palatalisation to a following consonant. Before a consonant, semivowels become glottal fricatives.
• Labial obstruents or nasals [m pʰ ɓ̰ ...] assimilate in labiodentality to a following labial obstruent or nasal.

Some words

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