Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C₁)V(C₂)

C₁: a consonant
V: a vowel
C₂: a consonant other than /ɾ̻/

Allophony

• Velar or uvular stops or nasals [ŋ kʰ g ...] persistently assimilate in uvularity to a following back consonant other than [w].
• Voiceless stops [pʰ t̻ʰ k ...] assimilate in aspiration to a following consonant other than a resonant.
• Nasals [m n̻ ŋ ɴ] become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent.
• Alveolar obstruents other than [s̻], i.e. [t̻ʰ t̻ d̻], become affricate sibilants [t͡s̻ʰ t͡s̻ d͡z̻] before a non-nasal alveolar fricative.
• Consonants [m d̻ t͡s̻ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following consonant other than a resonant and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiceless consonant or pause, nasals become non-nasal. Before a voiced stop or nasal, aspirated stops become unaspirated; [ʔ] are deleted.
• Non-glottal stop obstruents [pʰ kʰ t͡s̻ʰ ...] assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent. After a voiced obstruent, aspirated stops become unaspirated.
• Front vowels and semivowels [j̥ j i ɛ] become central [ɰ̟̥ ɰ̟ ɨ ɜ] before a velar semivowel.
• Consonants [m g r̻̥ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent or nasal. After a voiced obstruent or nasal, aspirated stops become unaspirated; [ʔ] are deleted. After a voiceless obstruent, nasals become non-nasal.
• Non-nasal consonants [pʰ q r̻ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following non-nasal consonant other than a resonant and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiced obstruent, aspirated stops become unaspirated; [ʔ] are deleted.
• Non-pharyngeal velar stops or nasals [ŋ kʰ k g] become palatal [ɲ cʰ c ɟ] before a front high vowel or a high palatal semivowel.
• Non-pharyngeal non-back consonants other than high semivowels [m d̻ β ...] persistently assimilate in palatalisation to a following consonant.
• Voiceless stops [pʰ t̻ʲʰ k ...] assimilate in aspiration to a preceding consonant other than a resonant.
• Unaspirated obstruents other than [ɸ ɸʲ s̻ s̻ʲ], i.e. [p c t͡s̻ ...], become glottalised [pʼ cʼ t͡s̻ʼ ...] after a non-nasal glottal stop. Non-affricate voiced stops become implosives; [d͡z̻ d͡z̻ʲ] become [ɹ̻ ɹ̻ʲ]; [β βʲ] become [w w]; [z̻ z̻ʲ] become [ɹ̻ ɹ̻ʲ].
• Unrounded central vowels and unrounded velar or uvular semivowels [ɰ̟̥ ɰ̟ ɜ ...] become back [ɰ̥ ɰ ʌ ...] before an uvular stop or nasal.
• Unaspirated obstruents other than [ɸ ɸʲ s̻ s̻ʲ], i.e. [p c ɓ̰ʲ ...], assimilate in glottalisation to a following non-nasal consonant other than a resonant. Before a glottalised consonant, non-implosive non-affricate voiced stops become implosives; [d͡z̻ d͡z̻ʲ] become [ɹ̻ ɹ̻ʲ]; [β βʲ] become [w w]; [z̻ z̻ʲ] become [ɹ̻ ɹ̻ʲ].
• Non-front vowels and velar or uvular semivowels [ɰ̟̥ w̥ ɜ ...] persistently assimilate in backness or velarisation to a following high semivowel. Before a semivowel, rounded semivowels become unrounded.
• Non-affricate alveolar stops or nasals [n̻ t̻ʼ d̻ʲ ...] are persistently deleted between a stop or nasal and a stop or nasal.
• Mid-low vowels [ɛ ɜ ʌ] persistently become tense [e ɘ ɤ] before a high semivowel.
• High vowels and semivowels [j̥ ɰ̟ w ...] persistently become non-high [e̯̥ ɘ̯ o̯ ...] before a non-near-high vowel or an uvular consonant except a vowel.
• Back vowels and semivowels [ɰ̥ ɤ̯̥ ɯ ...] become central [ɰ̟̥ ɘ̯̥ ɨ ...] before a front semivowel. Rounded semivowels become unrounded.

Some words

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