Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C₁)V(R)(C₂)(C₃)(C₄)

C₁: a consonant
V: a vowel
R: a sonorant other than /h/; i.e. one of /m n̻ n ŋ ŋˤ ɾ̃ j̃ ɪ̃ˤ̯ w̃ l̻ l j ɪˤ̯ w/
C₂: a consonant
C₃: a consonant other than a stop or nasal or /z̻ z/; i.e. one of /s̻ s h ɾ̃ j̃ ɪ̃ˤ̯ w̃ l̻ l j ɪˤ̯ w/
C₄: one of /m n ŋ ŋˤ p t k kˤ s h ɾ̃ j̃ ɪ̃ˤ̯ w̃ l j ɪˤ̯ w/

Allophony

• Alveolar consonants other than [ɾ̃], i.e. [n̻ t s ...], persistently assimilate in laminality to a following alveolar consonant.
• Voiceless stops [p t̻ k ...] become aspirated [pʰ t̻ʰ kʰ ...] before a glottal fricative.
• Obstruents [pʰ tʰ kˤʰ ...] assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent. After a voiced obstruent, aspirated stops become unaspirated.
• Non-front vowels and velar or uvular semivowels [w̃ ũ a ...] assimilate in backness or velarisation to a following semivowel.
• Mid-low vowels [ɛ œ ɞ̃ ...] become tense [e ø ɵ̃ ...] before a nasal consonant.
• Tense vowels and semivowels [j̃ ĩ e ...] persistently become lax [ɪ̯̃ ɪ̃ ɛ ...] before a pharyngealised consonant.
• Unrounded consonants [m tʰ s ...] persistently become rounded [mʷ tʷʰ sʷ ...] after a rounded semivowel.
• Non-front vowels and velar or uvular semivowels [w̟̃ ʉ̃ o ...] assimilate in backness or velarisation to a preceding semivowel.
• Vowels and semivowels other than [a ã], i.e. [j̃ w e ...], assimilate in frontness or palatalisation to a following consonant. Before a palatal semivowel, low vowels become non-front.
• High vowels and semivowels [j̃ ɥ ɨ ...] become non-high [ẽ̯ ø̯ ɘ ...] before a pharyngealised consonant.
• [m mʷ n̻ n̻ʷ n nʷ ŋ ŋʷ ŋˤ ŋˤʷ pʰ p b pʷʰ pʷ bʷ t̻ʰ t̻ d̻ t̻ʷʰ t̻ʷ d̻ʷ tʰ t d tʷʰ tʷ dʷ kʰ k g kʷʰ kʷ gʷ kˤʰ kˤ gˤ kˤʷʰ kˤʷ gˤʷ s̻ z̻ s̻ʷ z̻ʷ s z sʷ zʷ h hʷ ɾ̃ ɾ̃ʷ j̃ ɪ̯̃ ɪ̃ˤ̯ ɰ̟̃ ɪ̯̈̃ ɪ̈̃ˤ̯ ẽ̯ ɛ̯̃ ɛ̃ˤ̯ ɘ̯̃ ɜ̯̃ ɜ̃ˤ̯ l̻ l̻ʷ l lʷ j ɪ̯ ɪˤ̯ ɰ̟ ɪ̯̈ ɪ̈ˤ̯ e̯ ɛ̯ ɛˤ̯ ɘ̯ ɜ̯ ɜˤ̯] assimilate in rounding to a following consonant and become unrounded word-finally.
• Consonants other than [m mʷ n̻ n̻ʷ n nʷ ŋ ŋʷ ŋˤ ŋˤʷ], i.e. [pʰ s ɜ̃ˤ̯ ...], persistently assimilate in voice to a following consonant other than a resonant and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiced obstruent or nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated; [hʷ] become [w̟].
• Vowels and semivowels other than [a ã], i.e. [j̥̃ ɔ̯̃ ɞ̥̯ ...], assimilate in frontness or palatalisation to a following mid semivowel. Before a mid palatalised uvular semivowel, low vowels become non-front.
• Non-pharyngealised mid uvular semivowels [õ̥̯ ɔ̥̯̃ o̯ ...] become non-back non-front [ɵ̥̯̃ ɞ̥̯̃ ɵ̯ ...] after a front high vowel or a high palatal semivowel.
• Non-lateral alveolar taps [ɾ̥̃ ɾ̃ ɾ̥̃ʷ ɾ̃ʷ] become approximants [ɹ̥̃ ɹ̃ ɹ̥̃ʷ ɹ̃ʷ] before an alveolar approximant.
• Between a vowel or resonant and a vowel or semivowel, velar voiced stops become short non-glottal stop non-nasal voiced approximants; non-sibilant coronal voiced stops become short non-glottal stop non-nasal voiced fricative sibilants; [b bʷ] become [w w].
• Nasals [m n̻ʷ ŋ ...] become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent or nasal.
• Non-pharyngealised non-dorsal consonants other than taps [m t̻ʷʰ sʷ ...] persistently become front [mʲ t̻ʲʷʰ s̻ʲʷ ...] before a front semivowel. Apical consonants become laminal; [h hʷ] become [j̥ ɥ̥].
• Central vowels and velar or uvular fronted semivowels [ɰ̟̥̃ ɞ̥̃ˤ̯ ɜ̥ˤ̯ ...] persistently become back [ɰ̥̃ ɔ̥̃ˤ̯ ʌ̥ˤ̯ ...] before a pharyngealised consonant.
• Tense vowels and semivowels [j̥̃ j̥ i ...] persistently become lax [ɪ̥̯̃ ɪ̥̯ ɪ ...] after a pharyngealised consonant.
• [m mʷ n̻ n̻ʷ n nʷ ŋ ŋʷ pʰ p b pʷʰ pʷ bʷ t̻ʰ t̻ d̻ t̻ʷʰ t̻ʷ d̻ʷ tʰ t d tʷʰ tʷ dʷ kʰ k g kʷʰ kʷ gʷ s̻ z̻ s̻ʷ z̻ʷ s z sʷ zʷ h hʷ ɹ̥̃ ɹ̃ ɹ̥̃ʷ ɹ̃ʷ l̥̻ l̻ l̥̻ʷ l̻ʷ l̥ l l̥ʷ lʷ] become front after a front consonant except a semivowel. Apical consonants become laminal; velar stops become non-front; [h hʷ] become [j̥ ɥ̥].
• Non-pharyngealised velar stops or nasals [ŋ kʰ kʷʰ ...] become front [ɲ k̟ʰ k̟ʷʰ ...] before a non-low front vowel or a front semivowel. Stops become velar or uvular.
• Mid-low vowels and semivowels [ɛ̥̯̃ ʌ̥̃ˤ̯ ɜ̥ˤ̯ ...] become low [ḁ̯̃ ɑ̥̃ˤ̯ ḁˤ̯ ...] after a pharyngealised consonant. Non-back rounded vowels and non-velarised rounded semivowels become unrounded; front vowels and palatalised uvular semivowels become non-front.
• Consonants other than [m mʷ mˤ mˤʷ mʲ mʲʷ n̻ n̻ʷ n̻ˤ n̻ˤʷ n̻ʲ n̻ʲʷ n nʷ nˤ nˤʷ ɲ ɲʷ ŋ ŋʷ ŋˤ ŋˤʷ], i.e. [pʰ ʏ̥̃ˤ̯ lʷ ...], persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent or nasal. After a voiced obstruent or nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated; [hʷ] become [w̟].
• Unaspirated voiceless stops [p t̻ʷ k̟ ...] persistently become aspirated [pʰ t̻ʷʰ k̟ʰ ...] after an aspirated consonant.
• After a pharyngealised consonant, [h hʷ] become [ħ ʊ̥̈ˤ̯].
• Obstruents [pʰ d̻ʲ kʷ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following non-nasal consonant other than a resonant. Before a voiced obstruent, aspirated stops become unaspirated.

Some words

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