Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C₁)(R)V(C₂)

C₁: a consonant
R: a voiced consonant; i.e. one of /m n l j w/
V: a vowel
C₂: a consonant other than a palatoalveolar obstruent (/t͡ʃ ʃ/)

Allophony

• Coronal consonants [n t͡ʃ ʃ ...] persistently assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a following obstruent sibilant. Before a palatoalveolar obstruent, [t] become [t͡ʃ̺]; [l] become [j].
• Stops or nasals other than obstruent sibilants [m ṉ̺ p ...] become non-affricate and assimilate in place of articulation between an obstruent or nasal and an obstruent or nasal. After a palatoalveolar obstruent or nasal, stops become affricates; [t] are deleted.
• Non-front vowels [u o a] persistently assimilate in backness or velarisation to a following one of [j w]. Before [j], vowels other than [a] become unrounded.
• [ŋ͡m m ɱ n̻ ṉ̺ k͡p p p̪ t̻ t͡s̻ t͡ʃ̺ s̻ ʃ̺] assimilate in dorsality and uvularity and palatalisation and whether palatal or palatalised velar to a following obstruent or nasal and become non-palatal or velar word-finally. Before a velar consonant other than [w], coronal obstruents or nasals become non-velar non-palatal or velar; laminal obstruents or nasals become apical; palatoalveolar obstruents or nasals become laminal.
• Before an alveolar approximant, obstruent sibilants become non-sibilant coronal coronal obstruent laterals; [t̻ t] become [t͡ɬ̻ t͡ɬ].
• Non-pharyngeal non-palatal or velar consonants [m t f ...] persistently become front [mʲ tʲ fʲ ...] before a palatal semivowel.
• Front vowels and semivowels [j i e] become central [ ɨ ɘ] after a velar semivowel. [j] are deleted.
• Obstruents [k͡p t͡ɬ ɬ̻ʲ ...] become voiced [g͡b d͡ɮ ɮ̻ʲ ...] before a voiced consonant except an approximant.
• Voiceless stops [k͡p tʲ t͡sʲ ...] persistently become ejective [ɓ tʼʲ t͡sʼʲ ...] before a non-nasal glottal stop. Labial stops become non-ejective; labiodental stops become bilabial voiced implosives; bilabial stops become voiced implosives; [k͡p k͡p̪] become [ɓ ɓ].
• [k͡p k͡p̪ p pʲ p̪ p̪ʲ t̻ t̻ʼ t̻ʲ t̻ʼʲ t tʼ tʲ tʼʲ k kʼ ɓ ɓʲ t͡ɬ̻ t͡ɬ̻ʼ t͡ɬ̻ʲ t͡ɬ̻ʼʲ t͡s̻ t͡s̻ʼ t͡s̻ʲ t͡s̻ʼʲ t͡ɬ t͡ɬʼ t͡ɬʲ t͡ɬʼʲ t͡s t͡sʼ t͡sʲ t͡sʼʲ t͡ɬ̱ t͡ɬ̱ʼ t͡ɬ̱ʲ t͡ɬ̱ʼʲ t͡ʃ t͡ʃʼ t͡ɕ t͡ɕʼ t͡ɬ̱̺ t͡ɬʼ̱̺ t͡ɬʲ̱̺ t͡ɬʼʲ̱̺ t͡ʃ̺ t͡ʃ̺ʼ t͡ɕ̺ t͡ɕ̺ʼ] assimilate in glottalisation to a following non-nasal consonant other than an approximant. Before an ejective consonant, non-implosive labial stops become non-glottalised; non-implosive bilabial stops become voiced implosives; labiodental stops become bilabial voiced implosives; [k͡p k͡p̪] become [ɓ ɓ].
• Consonants [ŋ͡m ɓ̰ t͡ʃ̺ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following obstruent or nasal and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiced obstruent or nasal, non-implosive ejective stops become non-glottalised; [ʔ ʔʲ] become [ j]. Before a voiceless obstruent or pause, [ɓ ɓʲ] become [p pʲ]; [ɓ̰ ɓ̰ʲ] become [ɓ ɓʲ].
• Consonants [ŋ͡m̥ tʲ t͡ɬʼʲ̱̺ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent or nasal. After a voiced obstruent or nasal, non-labial ejective consonants become non-glottalised; [ʔʲ] become [j]. After a voiceless obstruent or nasal, [ɓ ɓʲ] become [p pʲ]; [ɓ̰ ɓ̰ʲ] become [ɓ ɓʲ].
• Non-front vowels and velar or uvular semivowels [w̥ ɨ o ...] become front [j̥ i e ...] before a front consonant. Rounded vowels and semivowels become unrounded; low vowels become non-low.
• Alveolar consonants [n̻̥ t͡ɬ̻ʼ t͡sʼʲ ...] become palatoalveolar [ṉ̥ t͡ɬ̱ʼ t͡ɕ̺ʼ ...] after a palatoalveolar obstruent or nasal. Non-affricate stops become affricate sibilants; approximants become non-lateral non-coronal palatal or velar; [l̥ l] become [j j]; [lʲ̥] become [j].
• Non-glottalised voiceless stops [k͡p tʲ t͡sʲ ...] persistently become ejective [ɓ tʼʲ t͡sʼʲ ...] before a glottal stop. Labiodental stops become non-glottalised bilabial voiced implosives; bilabial stops become non-glottalised voiced implosives; [k͡p k͡p̪] become [ɓ ɓ].
• Voiced vowels [i e ɛ ...] persistently become creaky-voiced [ḭ ḛ ɛ̰ ...] before a creaky-voiced implosive.
• Nasals [ŋ͡m̥ ɱʲ̥ ṉ̥ ...] become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent or nasal.
• Central vowels [ɨ ɘ a ...] become front [i e ɛ ...] after a front consonant. Low vowels become non-low.
• Coronal consonants [n̻̥ t͡s̻ʲ t͡ɕ̺ʼ ...] persistently assimilate in laminality to a following coronal consonant.
• Unrounded non-front non-labial consonants [n̻̥ t͡ɬ̻ʼ t͡ʃ̺ʼ ...] become rounded [n̻ʷ̥ t͡ɬ̻ʼʷ t͡ʃ̺ʼʷ ...] before a rounded semivowel.
• Back vowels and semivowels [w̥ u o̰ ...] become central [ ɨ ɘ̰ ...] before a palatal semivowel. Tense vowels become unrounded; semivowels are deleted.

Some words

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