Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C₁)(C₂)V(C₃)

C₁: a consonant other than /d/
C₂: a consonant
V: a vowel
C₃: a consonant

Allophony

• Non-pharyngeal consonants other than semivowels [m ⁿɗ̰ k ...] become front [mʲ ⁿɗ̰ʲ t͡ɕ ...] before a palatal semivowel. [h] become [j̥]; [k] become [t͡ɕ].
• Unrounded non-front vowels [ɯ ɤ ʌ ...] become rounded [u o ɔ ...] before a rounded semivowel.
• Stops [^mb ⁿɗ̰ʲ tʲ ...] assimilate in glottalisation to a preceding non-nasal consonant other than a resonant. After an implosive, non-creaky-voiced voiced stops become ejective; non-implosive prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised.
• Voiceless stops [p t k ...] persistently become aspirated [pʰ tʰ kʰ ...] before a glottal fricative. Ejective stops become non-glottalised.
• Short non-nasal voiced consonants [^mb ⁿɗ̰ ɓʲ ...] become voiceless [p tʼ pʲ ...] before a voiceless glottal fricative. Implosives become non-implosive; prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised.
• Coronal consonants [n t ɗʲ ...] assimilate in laminality to a following coronal consonant. Before an affricate sibilant, taps become stops or nasals; [ɾ̥ʲ ɾʲ] become [t̻ d̻]. Before an apical consonant, alveopalatal affricates become alveolar.
• Non-glottalised unaspirated stops [^mb ⁿɗʲ tʲ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding non-nasal consonant other than a resonant. After a voiceless consonant other than a resonant, prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised; implosives become non-implosive.
• Non-glottalised unaspirated stops [^mb p k ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding stop. After a voiceless stop, implosives become non-implosive; prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised.
• Non-ejective voiced vowels and non-glottal stop voiced consonants other than taps or [m mʲ n̻ n̻ʲ n nʲ j w], i.e. [^mb bʲ d͡ʑ ...], become creaky-voiced [pʼ pʼʲ t͡ɕʼ ...] after a creaky-voiced implosive. Non-implosive stops become ejective; non-implosive prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised.
• Front vowels and semivowels [j̥ i ḛ ...] persistently become central [h ɨ ɘ̰ ...] before a velar semivowel. Semivowels become glottal fricatives.
• Prenasalised stops [^mb ^mɓ ⁿɗ̻ʲ ...] become nasals [m m n̻ʲ ...] before a stop or nasal. Creaky-voiced implosives become non-glottalised.
• Consonants other than ejective stops [m pʰ ɓ̰ʲ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding consonant other than a resonant. After a voiced stop or nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated. After a voiceless consonant other than a resonant, implosives become non-implosive; prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised; nasals become non-nasal.
• Unaspirated stops [^mb pʼ g ...] assimilate in glottalisation to a following non-nasal consonant other than a resonant. Before a glottalised stop, non-implosive voiced stops become ejective; non-implosive prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised.
• Stops other than ejective stops [^mb p g ...] assimilate in voice to a following non-nasal consonant other than a resonant. Before a voiceless consonant other than a resonant, implosives become non-implosive; prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised. Before a voiced stop, aspirated stops become unaspirated.
• Voiceless stops [pʰ t̻ʲʰ kʰ ...] assimilate in aspiration to a following consonant other than a resonant. Before an aspirated consonant, ejective stops become non-glottalised.
• High semivowels [j̥ j w̥ w] become mid-high [e̯̥ e̯ o̯̥ o̯] after a mid vowel.
• Non-affricate non-dorsal stops or nasals [m ⁿɗ tʰ ...] persistently become non-affricate and assimilate in place of articulation to a following stop or nasal. Before an alveopalatal affricate, stops become affricates; non-bilabial stops become sibilants. Before a velar stop, implosives become non-implosive; creaky-voiced implosives become voiceless; prenasalised creaky-voiced implosives become non-prenasalised.
• Coronal stops or nasals other than [n nʲ t͡sʲʰ t͡sʲ t͡sʼʲ d͡zʲ], i.e. [n̻ t̻ ɗ̻̰ ...], assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a following affricate. Before an alveopalatal stop or nasal other than [ṉʲ], alveolar stops become affricate sibilants; apical stops become alveolar.
• Non-bilabial consonants other than semivowels [n̻ tʲʰ t͡s̻ʼʲ ...] become rounded [n̻ʷ tʷʲʰ t͡s̻ʼʷʲ ...] before a rounded semivowel.
• Non-bilabial consonants other than semivowels [n̻ tʲ t͡s̻ʷʲʰ ...] persistently assimilate in rounding to a following consonant and become unrounded word-finally.
• Consonants other than ejective stops [m t t͡s̻ʲʰ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following consonant other than a resonant. Before a voiced stop or nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated. Before a voiceless consonant other than a resonant, implosives become non-implosive; prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised; nasals become non-nasal; palatoalveolar nasals become affricate sibilants.
• Unaspirated voiceless stops [p tʷ t͡sʼ ...] become aspirated [pʰ tʷʰ t͡sʰ ...] after a glottal fricative. Ejective stops become non-glottalised.
• Voiced stops [^mb dʷʲ ⁿɗ͡zʲ ...] become nasals [m nʷʲ nʲ ...] after a nasal. Affricates become non-sibilant coronal nasals; creaky-voiced implosives become non-glottalised.
• Non-pharyngeal mid-high uvular semivowels [o̯̥ o̯] become non-back unrounded non-front glottal fricatives [h ] before a front high vowel or a high palatal semivowel.
• Back vowels and semivowels [w̥ ɤ ʌ ...] become central [h ɘ ɜ ...] before a front consonant. Rounded vowels become unrounded; semivowels become unrounded glottal fricatives.

Some words

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