Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C₁)V(C₂)

C₁: a consonant
V: a vowel
C₂: one of /m n̻ f h r̻ l̻ j/

Allophony

• After a non-labial obstruent, [m f] become [w̃ w].
• [ɑ] become [ɒ] before a rounded semivowel.
• Labial obstruents or nasals [m ^mb p ...] assimilate in labiodentality to a following labial obstruent or nasal.
• Before a velar obstruent, [ɱ ^ɱb p̪ʰ p̪ ɸ] become [m ^mb pʰ p f].
• Consonants [m p̪ʰ ɸ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following obstruent or nasal. Before an obstruent, resonants become obstruents; prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised; [m ɱ n̻] become [p p̪ t̻]; [w̃] become [ŋʷ]. Before a voiced stop or nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated.
• Consonants [m b̪ ɸ ...] assimilate in voice to a following obstruent or nasal. Before a voiceless consonant other than [h], resonants become obstruents; prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised; nasal consonants other than [w̃] become non-nasal; [w̃] become [ŋʷ]. Before a voiced obstruent or nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated.
• Consonants [m t̻ʰ d͡z̻ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following obstruent or nasal and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiced obstruent or nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated. Before a voiceless consonant other than [h] or pause, resonants become obstruents; prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised; nasal consonants other than [w̃] become non-nasal; [w̃] become [ŋʷ].
• After a non-nasal voiceless consonant, resonants become non-glottal stop unaspirated voiceless obstruents; [w̃] become [ŋʷ].
• Alveolar obstruents [ⁿd̻ ⁿd͡z̻ t͡s̻ ...] assimilate in laterality to a following alveolar consonant other than a stop or nasal. Before [l̻], obstruent sibilants become non-sibilant coronal; non-affricate stops become affricates.
• Non-front vowels and velar or uvular semivowels [w̃ u a ...] assimilate in backness or velarisation to a following one of [w̃ j w]. Before [j], rounded vowels become unrounded; semivowels are deleted.
• Nasals [m ɱ n̻ ŋʷ] become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent or nasal.
• Front vowels and semivowels [j i e] persistently become central [ ɨ ɘ] before a velar semivowel. [j] are deleted.
• Short voiced consonants [m b d͡z̻ ...] become voiceless [p p t͡s̻ ...] after a voiceless aspirated consonant. Prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised; nasal consonants other than [w̃] become non-nasal; resonants become obstruents; [w̃] become [ŋʷ].
• Before a labial obstruent or nasal, alveolar obstruents or nasals become non-labial rounded obstruents or nasals; velar obstruents or nasals become non-velar non-palatal or velar obstruents or nasals; non-prenasalised non-labial voiced obstruents become voiceless obstruents; [ɲ c ɟ] are deleted.
• Non-front vowels and velar or uvular semivowels [w̃ u a ...] become front [j̃ i ɛ ...] before a front consonant. Rounded vowels and semivowels become unrounded; lax vowels become non-low.
• Non-back vowels and non-velarised semivowels [j̃ i ɘ ...] assimilate in frontness or palatalisation to a following approximant other than [l̻]. Before one of [w̃ w], semivowels are deleted. Before one of [j̃ j], [a] become [ɛ].
• Short non-glottal stop non-prenasalised stops other than [t̻ d̻ tʷ̻], i.e. [pʰ c t͡ɬ̻ʰ ...], become fricatives [ɸ ç ɬ̻ ...] between a vowel or resonant and a vowel or resonant. Aspirated stops become unaspirated; non-lateral non-sibilant coronal stops become stops.
• High semivowels [j̃ w̃ j w] become mid-high [ẽ̯ õ̯ e̯ o̯] before a non-high vowel.
• Aspirated stops [pʰ tʷ̻ʰ t͡ɬʷ̻ʰ ...] become unaspirated [p tʷ̻ t͡ɬʷ̻ ...].
• Nasals [m ɱ ɲ ...] become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation between an obstruent or nasal and an obstruent or nasal.
• Back vowels and semivowels [w̃ w o ...] become central [ ɘ ...] before a front semivowel. Semivowels are deleted; vowels other than [ɑ] become unrounded.
• Non-pharyngeal consonants other than uvular semivowels or [ɲ c ɟ ç ʝ j̃ w̃ j w], i.e. [m t̻ t͡s̻ ...], persistently assimilate in palatalisation to a following consonant and become non-front word-finally. Before a front consonant, rounded obstruents or nasals become unrounded.
• Central vowels [ɨ ɘ ɜ a] become front [i e ɛ ɛ] after a front consonant. [a] become [ɛ].

Some words

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