Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C₁)(ʔ)V(ʔ)

C₁: a consonant
V: a vowel

Allophony

• Voiceless obstruents other than [s̻], i.e. [t̻ k kˤ ...], assimilate in glottalisation to a preceding consonant other than an approximant or [m].
• [w] become [o̯] before a lax vowel.
• Mid-low vowels [ɛ ɛ̃ ɔ ɔ̃] become tense [e ẽ o õ] after a high semivowel.
• High vowels and semivowels [w i u] become non-high [o̯ e o] before a pharyngealised stop.
• Consonants [m g qʷʼ ...] assimilate in voice to a following consonant other than an approximant and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiced obstruent or nasal, ejective consonants become non-ejective.
• Unrounded consonants [m̥ d̻ gˤ ...] become rounded [mʷ̥ d̻ʷ gˤʷ ...] after a rounded consonant. [ʔ] become [ɰ̟].
• [ʔ] become stops and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent or nasal.
• High vowels and semivowels [ɰ̟ w̥ i ...] become non-high [ɘ̯ o̯̥ e ...] after a pharyngealised stop.
• Non-ejective voiceless stops [p t̻ʷ kˤ ...] become ejective [pʼ t̻ʷʼ kˤʼ ...] before a glottal stop.
• Voiceless stops [p t̻ʷ kˤ ...] persistently assimilate in glottalisation to a following non-nasal consonant other than an approximant and become word-finally.
• Back mid-low vowels [ɔ ɔ̃] become low [ɒ ɒ̃] after a pharyngealised stop.
• Tense vowels and semivowels [ɰ̟ o̯̥ e ...] persistently become lax [ɪ̯̈ ɔ̯̥ ɛ ...] after a pharyngealised stop. [w] become [o̯].
• Near-high vowels and semivowels [ɪ̯̈ ʊ̯̥ ɪ ʊ] persistently become tense [ɰ̟ w̥ i u].
• Before a bilabial stop or nasal, back stops become non-back non-velar or uvular bilabial stops or nasals; unrounded alveolar obstruents become non-bilabial rounded obstruents; unrounded alveolar obstruents become non-bilabial rounded obstruents.
• Front vowels [i e ɛ ...] become non-front [ɨ ɘ ɜ ...] after an uvular stop.
• Non-high non-nasal vowels [e o ɔ ...] become nasal [ẽ õ ɔ̃ ...] before a nasal vowel.
• Consonants [m̥ t̻ʷ s̻ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding consonant other than an approximant. After a voiced obstruent or nasal, ejective consonants become non-ejective; [ʊ̯̥] become [o̯].
• [ɒ ɒ̃] become [ɔ ɔ̃] before a semivowel.
• Alveolar voiced fricatives [z̻ z̻ʷ] become non-nasal approximant laterals [l̻ l̻ʷ] before an alveolar approximant.
• Non-front mid-low vowels and mid-low velar or uvular semivowels [ɜ̯̥ ɔ̯̥ ɜ̃ ...] become low [a̯̥ ɒ̯̥ ã ...] before a pharyngealised stop.
• Unrounded velar or uvular semivowels [ɰ̟̥ ɪ̯̈ ɜ̯̥ ...] persistently become velar or uvular back [w̥ ʊ̯ ɔ̯̥ ...] after a pharyngealised stop. Non-low semivowels become rounded.
• Non-low lax semivowels [ɪ̯̥̈ ʊ̯̥ ɜ̯ ...] become tense [ɰ̟̥ w̥ ɘ̯ ...] after a high vowel or semivowel.
• [ɰ̟̥ ɰ̟ w̥ w ʊ̯ ɘ̯̥ ɘ̯ o̯̥ o̯ i ɨ u e ẽ ɘ ɘ̃ o õ] persistently become lax before a pharyngealised stop. [w ʊ̯] become [o̯ o̯].
• Non-front vowels and velar or uvular semivowels [ɰ̟̥ a̯̥ ʊ ...] assimilate in backness or velarisation to a following uvular consonant. Before an uvular consonant, non-low central vowels and fronted semivowels become rounded; [ʊ̯] become [o̯]. Before an uvular fronted semivowel, rounded vowels and semivowels become unrounded.
• Short non-ejective non-glottal fricative voiceless consonants [m̥ kʷ ɪ̯̥̈ ...] become voiced [m gʷ ɪ̯̈ ...] between a voiced phone and a voiced phone. [ʊ̯̥] become [o̯].
• Non-low tense semivowels [ɰ̟̥ w̥ ɘ̯ ...] assimilate in uvularity to a following vowel or non-palatoalveolar semivowel.
• Alveolar obstruents [t̻ t̻ʷ s̻ ...] become non-alveolar and assimilate in dorsality and uvularity and palatalisation and whether palatal or palatalised velar to a following phone other than [ʔ].
• Nasals [m̥ m mʷ̥ mʷ] persistently become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent.
• Velar or uvular obstruents or nasals [ŋ̥ kʷ ɢ ...] persistently assimilate in uvularity to a following back obstruent or nasal.
• [ɰ̟̥ ɰ̟ ɪ̯̥̈ ɪ̯̈ ʊ̯ ɘ̯̥ ɘ̯ ɜ̯̥ ɜ̯ a̯̥ a̯ ɨ ɪ̈ ɘ ɘ̃ ɜ ɜ̃ a ã] persistently become back before a pharyngealised stop. Non-low vowels and semivowels other than [ʊ̯] become rounded; [ʊ̯] become [o̯].
• Non-pharyngealised unrounded low uvular semivowels [ɑ̯̥ ɑ̯] become velar or uvular fronted [a̯̥ a̯] after a front high vowel.
• Rounded consonants other than low semivowels or non-low semivowels [mʷ̥ pˤʷʼ qʷʼ ...] become unrounded [m̥ pˤʼ qʼ ...] before a rounded consonant.
• Consonants other than tense semivowels or [ɪ̯̥̈ ɪ̯̈ ʊ̯̥ ʊ̯ ɜ̯̥ ɜ̯ a̯̥ a̯ ɔ̯̥ ɔ̯ ɒ̯̥ ɒ̯], i.e. [m̥ pˤʷ ɢʷ ...], assimilate in rounding to a following rounded consonant and become unrounded word-finally. Before a rounded consonant, [ʔ] become [ɰ̟].

Some words

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