Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C₁)(C₂)V(C₃)

C₁: one of /kʰ k h/
C₂: a consonant
V: a vowel
C₃: a non-palatal consonant (i.e. not /ɲ ʎ/) other than a laminal obstruent (/t͡ʃʰ t͡ʃ ʃ/)

Allophony

• Non-glottal stop approximants [l ʎ w] persistently become voiceless [l̥ ʎ̥ w̥] after a non-nasal consonant except an approximant.
• Unaspirated obstruents [p k f ...] become voiced [b g b ...] after a voiced nasal. Obstruents other than stops become stops; [f] become [b].
• Non-nasal consonants [pʰ k ʃ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding consonant other than an approximant. After a voiced stop or nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated; fricatives become stops or nasals; [f] become [b].
• Palatoalveolar affricates [t͡ʃʰ t͡ʃ d͡ʒ] become non-affricate non-coronal palatal [cʰ c ɟ] before a palatal nasal.
• Unaspirated voiceless stops [p c t͡s ...] become aspirated [pʰ cʰ t͡sʰ ...] after an aspirated consonant.
• Non-prenasalised voiced stops [b ɟ d͡z ...] persistently become prenasalised [^mb ^ɲɟ ⁿd͡z ...] after a nasal.
• Short non-glottal stop non-affricate non-prenasalised stops other than [b d], i.e. [pʰ t ɟ ...], become fricatives [ɸ θ̺ ...] between a vowel or an approximant and a vowel or semivowel. Voiced stops become stops; [kʰ k] become [h h]; [c] become [hʲ]; [pʰ tʰ] become [ɸ θ̺]; [cʰ] become [hʲ].
• Labial obstruents or nasals [m pʰ b ...] persistently assimilate in labiodentality to a following labial obstruent or nasal.
• Coronal consonants [n ⁿd͡ʒ d͡ʒ ...] persistently assimilate in laminality to a following coronal consonant.
• Non-front vowels [u ɔ] become front [y œ] before a non-retroflexed coronal consonant.
• Coronal obstruents [ⁿd̻ ⁿd͡ʒ d͡ʒ ...] persistently become non-nasal approximant laterals [l̻ ʎ ʎ ...] after an alveolar approximant. Palatoalveolar obstruents become non-coronal palatal; aspirated stops become unaspirated.
• Non-nasal consonants [^mb c t͡ʃ̺ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following consonant other than an approximant. Before a voiced stop or nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated; fricatives become stops or nasals; [f] become [b]; [hʲ] become [j]. Before a voiceless consonant other than an approximant, prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised.
• Short non-nasal voiced consonants [^mb d̻ d͡z̻ ...] become voiceless [p t̻ t͡s̻ ...] after a voiceless aspirated consonant. Prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised.
• Coronal consonants [n̻ ⁿd͡ʒ t͡ʃ̺ ...] assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a following non-labial fricative. Before one of [ʃ ʃ̺], non-sibilant coronal obstruents become sibilants; non-affricate stops become affricates; approximants become non-coronal palatal.
• Back vowels [u ɔ] become central [ʉ ɞ] after a palatal semivowel.
• Obstruents [^mb t t͡s ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following non-nasal consonant other than an approximant. Before a voiced stop, aspirated stops become unaspirated; obstruents other than stops become stops; [f] become [b]. Before a voiceless consonant other than an approximant, prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised.
• Non-pharyngeal unrounded consonants other than [j̥ j], i.e. [m d̻ t͡ʃ ...], assimilate in palatalisation to a following consonant. Before a front consonant, alveolar obstruents or nasals become alveopalatal; non-lateral alveolar apical obstruents or nasals become laminal; non-sibilant coronal obstruents become sibilants; non-sibilant coronal stops become affricates; alveolar approximant laterals become non-coronal palatal.
• Prenasalised stops [^mb ⁿd ⁿd͡z ...] become non-prenasalised [b d d͡z ...] after an obstruent.
• Nasals [m n̻ ṉ̺ ...] persistently become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent or nasal.
• Voiceless stops [pʰ tʰ t͡sʰ ...] persistently assimilate in aspiration to a following consonant other than an approximant.
• Mid-low vowels [ɛ œ ɞ ɔ] become tense [e ø ɵ o] before a palatal or velar voiced nasal.

Some words

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