Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C₁)V(C₂)

C₁: a consonant
V: a vowel
C₂: a consonant other than a voiced stop (/b d g/)

Allophony

• [j] become [w] before a rounded vowel or semivowel.
• Non-palatal or velar obstruents or nasals [m p d ...] persistently become velar [ŋ͡m k͡p g ...] before a velar obstruent or nasal. Non-bilabial obstruents or nasals become non-alveolar.
• Non-back vowels and non-velarised semivowels [j i e] become central [ ɨ ɘ] after a non-palatal consonant. [j] are deleted.
• Nasals [ŋ͡m m n ŋ] become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation between an obstruent or nasal and an obstruent or nasal.
• Non-front vowels [ɨ u o ...] assimilate in backness or velarisation to a following semivowel. Before [w], central vowels become central lax pharyngealised. Before [j], rounded vowels become unrounded.
• Obstruents [k͡p t s ...] assimilate in voice to a preceding non-nasal consonant other than a semivowel.
• Non-pharyngealised central vowels [ɨ ɘ a] persistently become front [i e ɛ] before a palatal semivowel. [a] become [ɛ].
• Obstruents [k͡p t z ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following non-nasal consonant other than a semivowel.
• Consonants [ŋ͡m p z ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent or nasal. After a voiceless obstruent, nasals become non-nasal. After a voiced obstruent or nasal, [ʔ h] are deleted.
• Unrounded non-palatal non-alveolar consonants [ŋ͡m g͡b g ...] become front [ɲ͡m g͡b̟ g̟ ...] before a palatal semivowel. [k͡p g͡b k g ʔ x ɣ] become [k͡p̟ g͡b̟ k̟ g̟ ɠ̟ x̟ ɣ̟]; [h] become [j̥].
• [k͡p̟ k͡p p pʲ t k̟ k kʷ ɠ̟ z ɣ̟ ɣ ɣʷ] become glottalised after a non-nasal glottal stop. Obstruents other than stops become non-glottalised; obstruents other than stops become implosives.
• Voiced stops [g͡b̟ d ɠ̰̟ ...] become nasals [ŋ͡m̟ n ɠ̟ ...] before a nasal. [ɠ̰̟] become [ɠ̟]; [ɗ͡z] become [n].
• Voiceless stops [k͡p̟ pʼ k̟ ...] become aspirated [k͡pʰ̟ pʰ kʰ̟ ...] after a glottal fricative. Ejective stops become non-glottalised.
• Nasals [ɲ͡m m ɲ ...] persistently become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent.
• Non-front vowels [ɨ ɪ̈ˤ ɜˤ ...] become front [i ɪˤ ɛˤ ...] before a palatal semivowel. Rounded vowels become unrounded; low vowels become non-low.
• Consonants [ɲ͡m pʼ kʼʷ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following obstruent or nasal and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiced obstruent or nasal, glottalised consonants other than [ɠ̰̟] become non-glottalised; aspirated consonants become unaspirated. Before a voiceless obstruent or pause, nasals become non-nasal; implosives become non-implosive; [ɲ͡m ɲ] become [k͡p̟ k̟].
• Aspirated stops [k͡pʰ̟ pʰ kʰ̟ ...] persistently become unaspirated [k͡p̟ p k̟ ...].
• Mid vowels [e o ɛˤ ...] become high [i u ɪˤ ...] before a nasal.
• Voiced vowels and semivowels [j ɪ o ...] become creaky-voiced [ɠ̟ ɪ̰ o̰ ...] before a creaky-voiced implosive. Semivowels become non-glottalised obstruents or nasals; [j] become [ɠ̟].
• Non-pharyngealised non-front vowels [ɨ ɘ a ...] persistently become front [i e ɛ ...] after a front consonant. Lax vowels become non-low; rounded vowels become unrounded.
• Non-ejective voiced vowels and non-glottal stop voiced semivowels [j ɪ o ...] become creaky-voiced [ɠ̟ ɪ̰ o̰ ...] before a glottalised phone. Semivowels become non-glottalised obstruents or nasals; [j] become [ɠ̟].
• Short alveolar stops or nasals [n t d ...] become trills [r r̥ r ...] between a vowel or semivowel and a vowel or semivowel. [n] become [r]; [tʼ] become [ɗ]; [tʰ] become [r̥].
• [j̥ j a a̰ ɑ ɑ̰] become rounded after a rounded consonant. Semivowels become velar; central vowels become back.
• [k͡p̟ k͡pʼ̟ k͡p k͡pʼ p pʼ pʲ pʼʲ t tʼ k̟ kʼ̟ k kʼ kʷ kʼʷ ɗ ɠ̟ ɠ̰̟ ɠ ɠʷ t͡s ɗ͡z z ɣ̟ ɣ ɣʷ] assimilate in glottalisation to a following non-nasal consonant other than a resonant. Before a glottalised consonant, obstruents other than stops become non-glottalised; obstruents other than stops become implosives.
• [k͡p̟ k͡pʼ̟ k͡p k͡pʼ p pʼ pʲ pʼʲ t tʼ k̟ kʼ̟ k kʼ kʷ kʼʷ ɗ̰ ɠ̰̟ ɠ̰ ɠ̰ʷ t͡s t͡sʼ ɗ͡z̰] persistently assimilate in glottalisation to a following non-nasal consonant other than a resonant.

Some words

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