Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C₁)V(C₂)

C₁: a consonant
V: a vowel
C₂: a sonorant; i.e. one of /m n ɲ ŋ h j w/

Allophony

• Coronal obstruents or nasals [n d d͡ʒ ...] assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a preceding coronal obstruent or nasal. After a laminal obstruent, alveolar obstruents or nasals become retroflex; [t d] become [ʈ͡ʂ ɖ͡ʐ].
• Palatal stops or nasals [ɲ c ɟ] become alveopalatal [ṉʲ t͡ɕ d͡ʑ] before a palatoalveolar obstruent. Stops or nasals other than [ɲ] become affricates.
• Non-dorsal obstruents or nasals [m t d͡ʒ ...] assimilate in dorsality and uvularity and palatalisation and whether palatal or palatalised velar to a following obstruent or nasal. Before a back consonant other than [w], [ɖ͡ʐ] are deleted. Before a palatal or velar stop or nasal, [ʈ͡ʂ ʂ] become [hˠ hˠ]. Before one of [ɲ c ɟ], [ɖ͡ʐ] are deleted. Before [χ], [ʈ͡ʂ ʂ] become [hˠ hˠ]. Before a dorsal obstruent or nasal, coronal obstruents or nasals other than [ɖ͡ʐ] become non-coronal; laminal affricates become fricatives; non-coronal stops or nasals become non-bilabial velar or uvular rounded back; [ɳ] become [ɰ].
• Non-back vowels and non-velarised semivowels [j i ɛ ...] assimilate in frontness or palatalisation to a following semivowel. Before [j], [a] become [ɛ].
• Central vowels and velar or uvular fronted semivowels [ɰ̟ ɨ ɜ ...] become front [j i ɛ ...] before a palatal semivowel. [a] become [ɛ].
• Dorsal obstruents or nasals [ɲ k ɢʷ ...] persistently assimilate in highness or uvularity to a following dorsal obstruent or nasal. Before an uvular obstruent or nasal, palatal obstruents or nasals become uvular.
• Non-back vowels and non-velarised semivowels [j ɨ ɛ ...] become back [ɰ ɯ ʌ ...] after a velarised glottal fricative.
• Non-retroflex coronal obstruents or nasals [n d͡z̻ d͡ʑ ...] persistently assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a following non-dorsal fricative. Before one of [ʃ ɕ], apical obstruents or nasals become retroflex; [t d] become [ʈ͡ʂ ɖ͡ʐ]. Before [ʂ], palatalised obstruents or nasals become non-front.
• Coronal obstruents or nasals [n̻ ɖ d͡ʒ ...] persistently assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a following obstruent sibilant. Before a palatoalveolar obstruent, non-affricate apical stops become retroflex affricate sibilants; [n s] become [ɳ ʂ]. Before a retroflex obstruent or nasal other than a non-affricate stop or nasal, palatalised obstruents or nasals become non-front.
• Non-retroflex coronal obstruents or nasals [n̻ d͡z̻ d͡ʑ ...] persistently become retroflex [ɳ̻ ɖ͡ʐ̻ ɖ͡ʐ̻ ...] after a retroflex obstruent or nasal. Palatalised obstruents or nasals become non-front.
• Non-glottal fricative semivowels [j ɰ̟ ɰ w] persistently become voiceless [j̥ ɰ̟̥ ɰ̥ w̥] after a voiceless consonant.
• Non-glottal stop non-glottal fricative semivowels [j̥ ɰ̟̥ ɰ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent.
• Consonants [m ɟ d͡ʒ̺ ...] assimilate in voice to a preceding consonant other than a semivowel. After a voiceless consonant other than a semivowel, nasals become non-nasal; [ṉ ṉʲ] become [t͡ʃ t͡ɕ]. After a voiced obstruent or nasal, glottal fricatives are deleted.
• Stops or nasals other than obstruent sibilants [m ŋʷ ʈ ...] are persistently deleted between an obstruent or nasal and a stop or nasal.
• Voiceless stops [p ʈ t͡sʲ̻ ...] persistently become aspirated [pʰ ʈʰ t͡sʰʲ̻ ...] before a glottal fricative.
• Non-affricate coronal stops [tʰ̻ tʰ ʈ̻ ...] become affricate sibilants [t͡sʰ̻ t͡sʰ ʈ͡ʂ̻ ...] before a non-nasal coronal fricative.
• Coronal stops [tʰ̻ t͡sʰ̻ ʈ͡ʂʰ ...] become non-affricate and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent. Before a palatoalveolar obstruent, non-affricate stops become affricates; non-sibilant coronal stops become sibilants. Before a coronal obstruent, affricate sibilants become affricates. Before one of [t͡ʃ̺ʰ t͡ʃ̺ d͡ʒ̺], unaspirated non-affricate stops become retroflex.
• Non-pharyngeal unrounded consonants other than apical obstruents or nasals or retroflex obstruents or nasals or semivowels or uvular consonants or palatal obstruents or nasals [m d̻ d͡ʒ ...] assimilate in palatalisation to a following consonant.
• Non-bilabial consonants other than [w̥ w], i.e. [n̻ k t͡ʃ̺ʰ ...], assimilate in rounding to a following consonant. Before a rounded consonant, palatal obstruents or nasals become back; non-back semivowels become back; [j̥ j] become [w̥ w].
• Front vowels and semivowels [j̥ j e ...] become central [ɰ̟̥ ɰ̟ ɘ ...] after a velar semivowel.
• Front vowels and semivowels [j̥ j e ...] become central [ɰ̟̥ ɰ̟ ɘ ...] before a velar semivowel.
• Alveopalatal stops or nasals [ṉʲ t͡ɕʰ t͡ɕʰʷ ...] become non-affricate non-coronal palatal [ɲ cʰ kʰʷ ...] before a palatal obstruent or nasal. Rounded stops or nasals become velar or uvular back.
• Consonants [m cʰ t͡ʃ̺ʰ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following consonant other than a semivowel. Before a voiced obstruent or nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated; [hʷ hˠʷ hʲ hʲʷ] become [w w j w]. Before a voiceless consonant other than a semivowel, nasals become non-nasal; palatoalveolar nasals become affricate sibilants.
• Central vowels and velar or uvular fronted semivowels [ɰ̟̥ ɨ ɜ ...] become front [j̥ i ɛ ...] after a front consonant. [a] become [ɛ].
• Retroflex obstruents or nasals other than [ɳ ʂ], i.e. [ɳ̻ ɖ ʈ͡ʂ ...], become non-retroflex [ṉ ɖ͡ʐ t͡ʃ̺ ...] after a front high vowel or a high palatal semivowel. Non-affricate stops become affricate sibilants; [ʈ ɖ] become [ʈ͡ʂ ɖ͡ʐ].
• Coronal obstruents or nasals [n̻ ɖ t͡ɕ ...] persistently assimilate in laminality to a following coronal obstruent or nasal. Before an apical obstruent or nasal, palatalised obstruents or nasals become non-front; [ṉ ʃ] become [ɳ ʂ].

Some words

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