Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C₁)(C₂)V(C₃)

C₁: an alveolar consonant; i.e. one of /n ⁿd ⁿɗ̰ t d ɗ̰ s l/
C₂: a consonant
V: a vowel
C₃: one of /m n k͡p q͡p p t k q/

Allophony

• Consonants [m ^ɳɗ̰ k ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following consonant other than [l] and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiceless obstruent or pause, prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised; implosives become non-implosive; nasals become non-nasal.
• Consonants [m g͡b g ...] assimilate in voice to a following obstruent or nasal and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiced consonant other than [l], non-implosive ejective stops become non-glottalised. Before a voiceless consonant other than [l̥] or pause, prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised; implosives become non-implosive; nasals become non-nasal.
• Non-back non-low vowels [i ɛ ɛ̃] become central [ɨ ɜ ɜ̃] after a consonant.
• Front vowels [i ɛ ɛ̃] become non-front [ɨ ɜ ɜ̃] after a retroflex stop.
• Nasals [m n] become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation between an obstruent or nasal and an obstruent or nasal.
• Obstruents [^ŋg͡^mb q͡p g ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following obstruent. Before a voiced obstruent, non-implosive ejective stops become non-glottalised. Before a voiceless consonant other than [l̥], prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised; implosives become non-implosive.
• Coronal obstruents or nasals [n ^ɳɗ̰ ɖ ...] assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a following non-bilabial consonant other than a stop or nasal. Before one of [ʃ ʒ], apical obstruents or nasals other than [ɳ ɗ̢̰] become retroflex; non-implosive stops become affricate sibilants; [ⁿɗ̰ ^ɳɗ̰] become [ɗ̢̰ ɗ̢̰].
• Nasals [ŋ͡m n̻ ṉ ...] persistently become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent.
• Non-glottalised non-glottal fricative consonants [ŋ͡m ^ɴɢ ^ɳɖ͡ʐ ...] assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent. After a voiceless consonant other than [l̥], nasals become non-nasal; prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised.
• Front vowels [i ɛ ɛ̃] persistently become non-front [ɨ ɜ ɜ̃] before a retroflex obstruent or nasal.
• Before a non-nasal coronal fricative, non-sibilant coronal non-implosive stops become non-nasal coronal affricate sibilants; coronal implosives become non-glottalised non-nasal coronal resonants.
• Bilabial obstruents or nasals [ŋ͡m ^mb p ...] assimilate in dorsality and uvularity and palatalisation and whether palatal or palatalised velar to a following obstruent or nasal. Before a back stop or nasal, implosives become non-glottalised non-implosive; fricatives become stops or nasals.
• Non-retroflex coronal consonants [n̻ d s̻ ...] become retroflex [ɳ̻ ɖ ʂ̻ ...] before a retroflex consonant.
• Non-retroflex coronal consonants [n̻ d s̻ ...] persistently become retroflex [ɳ̻ ɖ ʂ̻ ...] after a retroflex consonant.
• Voiced vowels and non-lateral voiced consonants other than stops [ŋ͡m ɴ ɨ ...] become creaky-voiced [g͡b ɢ ɨ̰ ...] after a creaky-voiced implosive. Consonants become non-glottalised; nasals become non-nasal; non-nasal fricatives become resonants; taps become obstruents or nasals; [ʒ] become [ɾ].
• Coronal consonants [n̻ ɗ̻ s̻ ...] persistently assimilate in laminality to a following coronal consonant. Before an apical consonant, palatoalveolar laminal obstruents or nasals become retroflex; [ṯ] become [ʈ͡ʂ].
• Consonants [ŋ͡m tʼ̻ t͡s ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent or nasal. After a voiceless obstruent, prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised; implosives become non-implosive; nasals become non-nasal. After a voiced obstruent or nasal, non-implosive ejective stops become non-glottalised.
• Velar or uvular stops or nasals [ŋ͡m ^ŋg q͡pʼ ...] persistently assimilate in uvularity to a following velar or uvular stop or nasal.
• [ŋ͡m ɴ͡m m n̻ n ɳ̻ ɳ ṉ ŋ ɴ ɓ ɗ̻ ɗ ɗ̢̻ ɗ̢ ɗ̱ β z̻ z ʐ̻ ʐ ʒ ɾ̻ ɾ ɽ̻ ɽ β̞ i ɨ u ɛ ɛ̃ ɜ ɜ̃ ɔ ɔ̃ a ã] become creaky-voiced before a creaky-voiced implosive. Consonants other than non-nasal implosives become non-glottalised; nasals become non-nasal; fricatives become resonants; taps become obstruents or nasals; [β̞] become [ɓ]; [ʒ] become [ɾ].
• Non-lateral coronal taps [ɾ̥̻ ɾ̥ ɽ̻ ...] become obstruents [t̻ t ɖ̻ ...] before a coronal approximant.
• [^mɓ̰ ⁿɗ̰̻ ⁿɗ̰ ^ɳɗ̻̰ ^ɳɗ̰ k͡p k͡pʼ q͡p q͡pʼ p pʼ t̻ tʼ̻ t tʼ ʈ̻ ʈ̻ʼ ʈ ʈʼ ṯ k q ɓ̰ ɗ̰̻ ɗ̰ ɗ̢̻̰ ɗ̢̰ ɗ̰̱ t͡s̻ t͡sʼ̻ t͡s t͡sʼ ʈ͡ʂ̻ ʈ͡ʂ̻ʼ ʈ͡ʂ ʈ͡ʂʼ t͡ʃ] persistently assimilate in glottalisation to a preceding obstruent.
• [^mɓ ^mɓ̰ ⁿɗ̻ ⁿɗ̰̻ ⁿɗ ⁿɗ̰ ^ɳɗ̻ ^ɳɗ̻̰ ^ɳɗ ^ɳɗ̰ k͡p k͡pʼ q͡p q͡pʼ p pʼ t̻ tʼ̻ t tʼ ʈ̻ ʈ̻ʼ ʈ ʈʼ ṯ tʼ̱ k kʼ q qʼ ɓ ɓ̰ ɗ̻ ɗ̰̻ ɗ ɗ̰ ɗ̢̻ ɗ̢̻̰ ɗ̢ ɗ̢̰ ɗ̱ ɗ̰̱ t͡s̻ t͡sʼ̻ t͡s t͡sʼ ʈ͡ʂ̻ ʈ͡ʂ̻ʼ ʈ͡ʂ ʈ͡ʂʼ t͡ʃ t͡ʃʼ β z̻ z ʐ̻ ʐ ʒ] assimilate in glottalisation to a preceding obstruent. After a glottalised stop, obstruents other than stops become non-glottalised; obstruents other than stops become resonants; [ʒ] become [ɾ].
• Non-nasal vowels [i u ɜ̰ ...] become nasal [ĩ ũ ɜ̰̃ ...] before a nasal phone.

Some words

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