Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C)V

C: a consonant
V: a vowel

Allophony

• Voiceless stops [p t k t͡ʃ] become aspirated [pʰ tʰ kʰ t͡ʃʰ] before a glottal fricative.
• Consonants [m tʰ d͡ʒ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following consonant other than a resonant and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiced stop or nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated. Before a voiceless consonant other than a resonant or pause, nasals become non-nasal.
• Consonants [m t d͡ʒ ...] assimilate in voice to a following consonant other than a resonant. Before a voiced stop or nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated. Before a voiceless consonant other than a resonant, nasals become non-nasal.
• Unaspirated voiceless stops [p t k ...] persistently become aspirated [pʰ tʰ kʰ ...] after an aspirated consonant.
• Coronal voiced nasals [n ɳ] become non-lateral non-nasal taps [ɾ ɽ] before an alveolar tap.
• Non-front vowels [ɨ u ɔ ...] assimilate in backness or velarisation to a preceding semivowel. After a palatal semivowel, back vowels become unrounded.
• Non-back vowels [i ɪ̈ ɜ ...] assimilate in frontness or palatalisation to a following semivowel. Before a palatal semivowel, [a] become [ɛ].
• Back vowels [ɯ u ɔ ...] become central [ɨ ɨ ɜ ...] before a palatal semivowel. Rounded vowels become unrounded.
• Non-glottal stop resonants [ɾ̥ ɽ j ...] assimilate in voice to a preceding non-nasal consonant other than a resonant.
• Consonants [m d d͡ʒ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following non-nasal consonant other than a resonant. Before a voiced stop, aspirated consonants become unaspirated. Before a voiceless consonant other than a resonant, nasals become non-nasal.
• Palatal semivowels [j̥ j] become velar rounded [w̥ w] after a rounded vowel or semivowel.
• Coronal consonants [n ʈʰ d͡ʒ ...] persistently assimilate in laminality to a following coronal consonant. Before an apical consonant, affricates become retroflex.
• Unaspirated voiceless stops [p t k ...] persistently become aspirated [pʰ tʰ kʰ ...] before a glottal fricative.
• Non-pharyngeal consonants other than semivowels [m t ɖ͡ʐ ...] become front [mʲ tʲ d͡ʑ ...] before a palatal semivowel. Retroflex consonants become non-retroflex; retroflex apical stops or nasals become laminal; non-affricate retroflex stops become affricate sibilants; retroflex taps become alveolar; [ɽ̥̻ ɽ̻] become [ɾʲ̥ ɾʲ]; [h] become [j̥].
• Unrounded non-bilabial consonants [n̻ tʲ d͡ʒ ...] become rounded [n̻ʷ tʲʷ d͡ʒʷ ...] before a rounded semivowel. Semivowels become velar.
• Non-retroflex coronal consonants other than [nʲ̱ nʲ̱ʷ t͡ɕʰ t͡ɕ d͡ʑ t͡ɕʰʷ t͡ɕʷ d͡ʑʷ ɾʲ̥ ɾʲ ɾʲ̥ʷ ɾʲʷ], i.e. [n̻ d̻ʲ t͡ʃ ...], persistently become retroflex [ɳ̻ d͡ʑ ʈ͡ʂ̻ ...] after a retroflex consonant. Palatalised consonants become palatoalveolar; palatalised stops become affricate sibilants; palatalised apical stops or nasals become laminal; palatalised taps become alveolar; palatalised taps become apical.
• Nasals [m n ɳʷ ...] persistently become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following stop.
• Coronal consonants other than palatalised apical taps [n̻ tʷ t͡ʃʰ ...] assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a preceding coronal consonant. After a postalveolar consonant, non-affricate palatalised stops become affricate sibilants; palatalised apical stops or nasals become laminal; palatalised taps become alveolar; palatalised taps become apical. After a retroflex consonant, alveolar palatalised consonants become palatoalveolar. After a palatoalveolar stop or nasal, non-palatalised non-sibilant coronal stops become affricate sibilants; non-palatalised non-sibilant coronal apical stops or nasals other than [ɳ ɳʷ] become retroflex; [ɾ̻̥ ɾ̻ ɾ̻̥ʷ ɾ̻ʷ ɽ̥̻ ɽ̻ ɽ̥̻ʷ ɽ̻ʷ ɽ̥ ɽ ɽ̥ʷ ɽʷ] become [ɾ̥ ɾ ɾ̥ʷ ɾʷ ɾ̥ ɾ ɾ̥ʷ ɾʷ ɾ̥ ɾ ɾ̥ʷ ɾʷ].
• Consonants [m tʲʰʷ ʈ͡ʂ̻ʷ ...] assimilate in voice to a preceding stop or nasal. After a voiced stop or nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated. After a voiceless stop, nasals become non-nasal; palatoalveolar nasals become affricate sibilants.
• Vowels [i ɪ ɜ ...] become nasal [ĩ ɪ̃ ɜ̃ ...] before a nasal.

Some words

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