Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C)V

C: a consonant
V: a vowel

Allophony

• Front vowels [i e] become non-front [ɨ ɘ] before an uvular stop.
• Front vowels [i e] persistently become non-front [ɨ ɘ] before an uvular stop.
• Front vowels [i e] become non-front [ɨ ɘ] before an uvular stop.
• Consonants other than [ɗ̰ ʒ˂̰], i.e. [m tʼ t͡ʃ ...], persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding consonant other than an approximant. After a voiced obstruent or nasal, non-implosive ejective stops become implosive; [t͡ʃʼ] become [ʒ˂̰]; [ʔ] are deleted. After a voiceless consonant, [ɓ̰] are deleted.
• Consonants other than [ɗ̰ ɠ̰ ʛ̰ ʒ˂̰], i.e. [m̥ tʼ d͡ʒ ...], assimilate in voice to a preceding consonant other than an approximant. After a voiceless consonant other than an approximant, [ɓ̰] are deleted. After a voiced obstruent or nasal, glottalised consonants other than [ɓ̰] become implosive; [t͡ʃʼ] become [ʒ˂̰].
• Non-pharyngeal non-dorsal consonants [m̥ tʼ f ...] persistently become front [m̥ʲ tʼʲ fʲ ...] before a palatal consonant.
• Central vowels [ɨ ɘ a] persistently become front [i e ɛ] after a front consonant. [a] become [ɛ].
• Consonants other than non-labial implosive obstruents [m̥ d f ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following consonant other than an approximant. Before a voiced obstruent or nasal, non-implosive ejective stops become implosive; [t͡ʃʼ t͡ɕʼ] become [ʒ˂̰ ʑ˂̰]; [ʔ ʔʲ] become [ j]. Before a voiceless consonant other than an approximant, implosives become voiced; [ɓ̰ʲ] become [j].
• Non-sibilant coronal alveolar stops or nasals [n̥ t tʼʲ ...] are persistently deleted between a stop and an obstruent or nasal.
• Non-back vowels [i e ɛ ...] assimilate in frontness or palatalisation to a preceding consonant. After a front consonant, [a] become [ɛ].
• Non-ejective voiced vowels and non-glottal stop voiced consonants [m ɢ j ...] become creaky-voiced [ɓ̰ ʛ̰ ʄ̰ ...] after a creaky-voiced obstruent. Obstruents become implosive; nasals become obstruents; approximants become obstruents; labiodental fricatives become bilabial implosives; affricates become fricatives.
• Non-ejective voiced vowels and non-glottal stop voiced consonants [m ɢ j ...] become creaky-voiced [ɓ̰ ʛ̰ ʄ̰ ...] after a creaky-voiced obstruent. Obstruents become implosive; nasals become obstruents; approximants become obstruents; labiodental fricatives become bilabial implosives; affricates become fricatives.
• [t tʼ d tʲ tʼʲ dʲ t͡ʃ t͡ʃʼ d͡ʒ t͡ɕ t͡ɕʼ d͡ʑ ʃ ʒ ɕ ʑ ʒ˂̰ ʑ˂̰] assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a following obstruent sibilant. Before a palatoalveolar obstruent, non-sibilant coronal stops become alveolar; alveolar stops become affricates.
• Alveolar voiced nasals [n nʲ] become non-nasal approximant laterals [l lʲ] before an alveolar approximant.
• Stops or nasals [m̥ tʼ ɠ̰ʷ ...] become non-affricate and assimilate in place of articulation between an obstruent or nasal and an obstruent or nasal. After an obstruent or nasal, implosive laterals become non-lateral. After a coronal obstruent or nasal, laminal affricates become affricates. After a palatoalveolar obstruent, non-implosive stops other than affricate sibilants become affricates; non-sibilant coronal non-implosive stops become sibilants; non-coronal implosives become fricatives; [ɗ̰ ɗ̰ʲ] are deleted.
• Nasals [m̥ n̻ ṉ̥ʲ ...] become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation between an obstruent or nasal and an obstruent or nasal.
• Non-sibilant coronal coronal stops [t̻ tʲ ɗ̰ʲ ...] persistently become sibilants [t͡s̻ t͡sʲ z˂̰ʲ ...] before a non-nasal coronal fricative. Non-implosive non-affricate stops become affricates; implosives become fricatives; implosive laterals become non-lateral.
• Non-sibilant coronal coronal nasals [n̥̻ n̥ ṉ̥ ...] become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent or nasal.
• Non-lateral obstruents other than [ɗ̰̻ ɗ̰̻ʲ ɗ̰ ɗ̰ʲ ʄ̰ ɠ̰ ɠ̰ʷ ʛ̰ ʒ˂̰ ʑ˂̰], i.e. [p kʼ t͡sʼʲ ...], persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding non-nasal consonant other than an approximant. After a voiceless consonant other than an approximant, implosive obstruents become voiced; implosive obstruents other than stops become non-sibilant coronal stops; [ɓ̰ʲ ɓ̰̪ʲ] become [j j]. After a voiced obstruent, ejective stops become implosive; ejective affricate sibilants become fricatives; [t͡θ̺ʼ t͡θ̺ʼʲ] become [ɗ̰ ɗ̰ʲ].
• Dorsal stops or nasals [ɲ̥ c gʷ ...] persistently assimilate in uvularity to a following dorsal stop or nasal. Before an uvular stop or nasal, palatal stops or nasals become uvular.
• Coronal consonants [n̥̻ ɗ̰̻ʲ t͡ʃʼ ...] persistently assimilate in laminality to a following coronal consonant. Before an apical consonant, palatoalveolar obstruents or nasals become alveolar.
• Unrounded consonants [m̥ d t͡θ̺ʲ ...] persistently become rounded [mʷ̥ dʷ t͡θ̺ʷʲ ...] after a rounded consonant. [j̥ j] become [w̥ w]; [ʔ ʔʲ] become [ɠ̰ʷ ɠ̰ʷ].
• Labial rounded obstruents or nasals [mʷ̥ pʼʷ pʼʷ̪ʲ ...] become non-labial velar or uvular back [ŋʷ̥ kʼʷ kʼʷ ...].
• Unrounded consonants [m̥ d t͡θ̺ʲ ...] become rounded [mʷ̥ dʷ t͡θ̺ʷʲ ...] after a rounded consonant. [j̥ j] become [w̥ w]; [ʔ ʔʲ] become [ɠ̰ʷ ɠ̰ʷ].
• [b bʷ bʲ bʷʲ b̪ bʷ̪ b̪ʲ bʷ̪ʲ d̻ dʷ̻ d̻ʲ dʷ̻ʲ d dʷ dʲ dʷʲ ɟ ɟʷ g gʷ ɢ ɢʷ ɓ̰̪ ɓ̰ʷ̪ ɓ̰̪ʲ ɓ̰ʷ̪ʲ ɗ̰ˡ̻ ɗ̰ʷˡ̻ ɗ̰ˡ̻ʲ ɗ̰ʷˡ̻ʲ ɗ̰ˡ ɗ̰ʷˡ ɗ̰ˡʲ ɗ̰ʷˡʲ ɗ̰̱ˡ ɗ̰ʷ̱ˡ ɗ̰̱ˡʲ ɗ̰ʷ̱ˡʲ d͡ð d͡ðʷ d͡ðʲ d͡ðʷʲ d͡z̻ d͡zʷ̻ d͡z̻ʲ d͡zʷ̻ʲ d͡ð̺ d͡ð̺ʷ d͡ð̺ʲ d͡ð̺ʷʲ d͡z d͡zʷ d͡zʲ d͡zʷʲ d͡ʒ d͡ʒʷ d͡ʑ d͡ʑʷ v vʷ vʲ vʷʲ z̻ zʷ̻ z̻ʲ zʷ̻ʲ z zʷ zʲ zʷʲ ʒ ʒʷ ʑ ʑʷ ɣʷ] become nasals before a nasal. Implosives become stops; affricates become nasals; coronal obstruents other than stops become non-sibilant coronal nasals; affricate sibilants become non-sibilant coronal; implosive laterals become non-lateral; palatoalveolar implosives become fricative sibilants; labiodental obstruents other than stops become bilabial nasals; labiodental implosives become non-labiodental; [ɣʷ] become [ŋʷ].
• Non-ejective voiced vowels and non-glottal stop voiced consonants [m d̻ vʷ ...] become creaky-voiced [ɓ̰ ɗ̰̻ ɓ̰ʷ ...] before a creaky-voiced obstruent. Obstruents become implosive; nasals become obstruents; affricate sibilants become fricatives; approximants become obstruents; non-sibilant coronal affricates become non-affricate; labiodental obstruents or nasals other than stops become bilabial; non-coronal fricatives become implosives; palatoalveolar obstruents or nasals other than obstruents become fricative sibilants.
• Labial obstruents or nasals [m̥ b pʷ̪ʲ ...] assimilate in dorsality and uvularity and palatalisation and whether palatal or palatalised velar to a following obstruent or nasal and become non-dorsal word-finally. Before a dorsal obstruent or nasal, obstruents or nasals become non-labial; non-implosive voiced obstruents become voiceless; voiceless obstruents or nasals other than obstruents become voiced.

Some words

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