Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C₁)(R)V(C₂)

C₁: a consonant
R: an approximant; i.e. one of /l j w/
V: a vowel
C₂: a consonant other than one of /ɲ ṯʲ ɕ/ (/ɲ ṯʲ ɕ/)

Allophony

• Stops [p t ṯʲ ...] become ejective [pʼ tʼ ṯʼʲ ...] after a glottal stop.
• Non-high vowels [e ɤ o a] become nasal [ẽ ɤ̃ õ ã] after a nasal.
• Coronal consonants [n ṯ s ...] persistently assimilate in laminality to a following coronal consonant. Before an apical consonant, alveopalatal obstruents become non-front laminal.
• Non-front coronal consonants [n̻ tʼ s̻ ...] persistently assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a following non-lateral coronal obstruent or nasal. Before a palatoalveolar obstruent, approximant laterals become non-lateral non-coronal palatal.
• Nasals [m n ṉ̺ ...] persistently become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent or nasal.
• Non-pharyngeal palatal or velar consonants other than [ɲ], i.e. [ŋ kʼ j ...], assimilate in palatalisation to a following high tense vowel or semivowel. Before one of [j i], [w] become [j]. Before one of [w ɯ u], [j] are deleted.
• Palatoalveolar stops or nasals [ṉ ṯ ṯʼʲ ...] persistently become non-affricate non-coronal palatal [ɲ c cʼ ...] before a palatal obstruent or nasal.
• Consonants [m t ʔ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding consonant other than an approximant.
• Coronal voiced obstruents or nasals [n̻ d̰̻ ḏ̺ ...] become non-nasal approximant laterals [l̻ l̰̻ j ...] after an alveolar approximant. Palatoalveolar obstruents or nasals become non-coronal semivowels; non-alveopalatal palatoalveolar obstruents or nasals become palatal.
• Short non-prenasalised voiced stops [b d̰ ḏ̺ ...] become fricatives [β z ʒ̺ ...] between a vowel or semivowel and a vowel or semivowel. Coronal stops become sibilants; creaky-voiced stops become non-glottalised.
• Non-pharyngeal unrounded consonants other than palatal consonants [m̥ d̰̻ ʔ ...] persistently assimilate in palatalisation to a following consonant and become non-front word-finally. Before a front consonant, non-lateral alveolar obstruents or nasals become alveopalatal; [d̻ d̰̻ d d̰ ḏ̺ d̰̱̺ z̻ z ʒ̺] become [ṯʲ ṯʼʲ ṯʲ ṯʼʲ ṯ ṯʼ ɕ ɕ ʃ]; alveolar apical obstruents or nasals become laminal; consonants other than obstruents or nasals become palatal; palatoalveolar apical obstruents or nasals become non-front laminal; [n̻̥ n̥ ṉ̺̥ ʔ l̻̥ l̥] become [ṉʲ ṉʲ ṉ j̰ j j]; approximants become non-lateral non-coronal.
• Non-glottalised voiced stops [b d ḏ̺ ...] become creaky-voiced [b̰ d̰ d̰̱̺ ...] after a glottal stop.
• Voiced vowels and semivowels other than [j̰], i.e. [j u ɤ̃ ...], persistently become creaky-voiced [j̰ ṵ ɤ̰̃ ...] before a creaky-voiced consonant.
• Bilabial fricatives [β βʲ] become unrounded non-bilabial semivowels [ j] after an obstruent.
• Central vowels [a a̰ ã ã̰] become front [æ æ̰ æ̃ æ̰̃] after a front consonant.
• Palatal obstruents or nasals [ɲ̥ c ɟ̰ ...] become alveopalatal [ṉʲ̥ ṯʲ ḏ̰ʲ ...] before a palatoalveolar obstruent or nasal.
• Non-glottal fricative obstruents [p ṯʼ g ...] assimilate in voice to a preceding non-nasal consonant other than an approximant.
• High semivowels [j̥ j̰ w ...] become mid-high [e̯̥ ḛ̯ o̯ ...] after a non-high vowel.
• Consonants [m̥ t z̻ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following obstruent or nasal.
• Non-pharyngeal unrounded non-front consonants [m̥ d̰̻ ɸ ...] become front [mʲ̥ ṯʼʲ ɸʲ ...] after a front consonant except a semivowel. Alveolar obstruents or nasals become alveopalatal; [d̻ d̰̻ d d̰ ḏ̺ d̰̱̺ z̻ z ʒ̺] become [ṯʲ ṯʼʲ ṯʲ ṯʼʲ ṯ ṯʼ ɕ ɕ ʃ]; [n̻̥ n̥ ṉ̺̥ ʔ l̻̥ lʼ̻̥ l̥ lʼ̥] become [ṉʲ ṉʲ ṉ j̰ j j̰ j j̰]; alveolar apical obstruents or nasals become laminal; palatoalveolar apical obstruents or nasals become non-front laminal; glottalised consonants other than non-lateral obstruents or nasals become dorsal; glottalised approximant laterals become non-lateral non-coronal; non-glottalised approximant laterals become non-lateral non-coronal dorsal.
• Glottalised stops [pʼ tʼ tʼ̱̺ ...] persistently become non-glottalised [p t ṯ̺ ...] before a non-nasal phone except a non-nasal vowel or approximant.

Some words

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