Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C)V

C: a consonant
V: a vowel

Allophony

• Non-pharyngeal non-palatal consonants other than [w], i.e. [ŋ͡m p d͡ʒ ...], persistently become front [ɲ͡m pʲ d͡ʑ ...] before a palatal consonant.
• Consonants other than [w], i.e. [ɲ͡m b d͡ʑ ...], become rounded [ŋ͡mʷ bʷ d͡ʑʷ ...] before a rounded semivowel. Palatal consonants become velar; glottal fricatives become non-glottal fricative velar; [hʲ] become [w̥].
• Coronal obstruent sibilants [t͡ʃ d͡ʑ sʲ ...] become non-sibilant coronal laterals [t͡ɬ̱ d͡ɮʲ̱ ɬʲ ...] before an alveolar approximant lateral.
• Nasals [ɲ͡m mʷ nʲ ...] become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent.
• Palatal obstruents or nasals [ɲ͡m c͡p c ...] become alveopalatal [mʲ pʲ t͡ɕ ...] before a palatoalveolar obstruent or nasal. Bilabial stops or nasals become non-coronal; [c ɟ] become [t͡ɕ d͡ʑ].
• Palatoalveolar laminal obstruents or nasals [ṉ d͡ɮʲ̱ t͡ɕʷ ...] persistently become non-retroflexed alveolar [n̻ d͡ɮ̻ʲ t͡s̻ʲʷ ...] before a non-retroflexed alveolar obstruent or nasal except a non-affricate stop or nasal.
• [t d tʷ dʷ tʲ dʲ tʲʷ dʲʷ t͡s̻ d͡z̻ t͡s̻ʷ d͡z̻ʷ t͡s̻ʲ d͡z̻ʲ t͡s̻ʲʷ d͡z̻ʲʷ s̻ s̻ʷ s̻ʲ s̻ʲʷ s sʷ sʲ sʲʷ ʃ ʃʷ ɕ ɕʷ] assimilate in sibilancy to a following coronal fricative. Before a fricative, obstruents other than stops become resonants; palatoalveolar fricatives become alveolar apical. Before an obstruent sibilant other than a stop, non-sibilant coronal stops become affricates.
• Front vowels and semivowels [j i e ẽ] become central [ ɨ ɘ ɘ̃] after a velar semivowel. [j] are deleted.
• Low vowels [ɑ ɑ̃] become mid [ʌ ʌ̃] before a semivowel.
• Obstruents or nasals other than non-palatal or velar bilabial obstruents or nasals [ɲ͡m gʷ d͡ɮʲ̱ ...] assimilate in labiality and labiodentality to a following non-glottal fricative consonant. Before a bilabial obstruent or nasal, non-palatal or velar obstruents or nasals become non-coronal; obstruent laterals become non-lateral; voiceless affricates become fricatives; voiced affricates become non-bilabial velar semivowels; palatalised voiced affricates become velar; unrounded voiced affricates become rounded; palatal or velar fricatives become stops or nasals.
• Non-back vowels and non-velarised semivowels [j ɨ ẽ ...] assimilate in frontness or palatalisation to a following consonant. Before a consonant, [j] are deleted.
• Non-nasal consonants [c͡p d͡ɮ̻ʲ ɬ̻ʲ ...] assimilate in voice to a following non-nasal consonant other than a resonant. Before a voiced stop, coronal fricatives become resonants; bilabial obstruents other than stops become non-bilabial velar semivowels; non-sibilant coronal palatoalveolar obstruents other than stops become non-coronal semivowels; non-lateral palatoalveolar obstruents other than stops become alveolar apical; [ɸʲ ɸʲʷ ɬʲʷ̱] become [w w w]; palatal or velar fricatives become resonants; glottal fricatives become non-glottal fricative palatal or velar; [ɬʷ̱] become [w]; [ɸ] become [w]; [ɬ̱] become [j].
• Palatoalveolar stops or nasals [ṉ t͡ɬʷ̱ d͡ʒ ...] become non-affricate non-coronal palatal [ɲ ɟ ...] before a palatal obstruent or nasal. Rounded stops or nasals become velar; unrounded affricate laterals are deleted.
• Central vowels [ɨ ɘ ɘ̃] persistently become front [i e ẽ] after a front consonant.
• Central vowels [ɨ ɘ ɘ̃] become front [i e ẽ] before a front consonant.
• Back vowels [u õ ʌ̃ ...] become central [ʉ ɵ̃ ɜ̃ ...] before a palatal semivowel.
• Obstruents [c͡p d͡ɮ̻ʷ d͡ʒʷ ...] assimilate in voice to a preceding non-nasal consonant other than a resonant. After a voiced stop, non-bilabial obstruents other than stops or [ç xʷ] become resonants; non-lateral palatoalveolar obstruents other than stops become alveolar apical; palatoalveolar obstruent laterals other than stops become non-coronal semivowels; bilabial obstruents other than stops become non-bilabial velar semivowels; [ɸʲ ɸʲʷ ɬʲʷ̱] become [w w w]; [ɬʷ̱] become [w]; [ç xʷ] become [j w]; [ɸ] become [w]; [ɬ̱] become [j].
• Stops or nasals other than obstruent sibilants [ɲ͡m k͡p gʷ ...] are persistently deleted between an obstruent or nasal and an obstruent or nasal.
• Non-sibilant coronal coronal stops or nasals [n̻ tʷ d͡ðʲ ...] are persistently deleted between a stop or nasal and a stop or nasal.
• Low vowels [a ã ɑ ɑ̃] become non-low [ɜ ɜ̃ ʌ ʌ̃] before a nasal.
• Coronal consonants [n̻ t͡s̻ʲ s ...] persistently assimilate in laminality to a following coronal consonant. Before an apical consonant, palatoalveolar obstruents or nasals become alveolar.
• Front vowels and semivowels [j̥ j e ...] become central [h ɘ ...] before a velar semivowel. Semivowels become glottal fricatives.
• Consonants [ɲ͡m d͡ɮ̻ ɬ̻ʷ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following consonant other than a resonant. Before a voiced stop or nasal, coronal fricatives become resonants; bilabial fricatives become non-bilabial velar semivowels; non-sibilant coronal palatoalveolar fricatives become non-coronal semivowels; palatoalveolar fricative sibilants become alveolar apical; [ɸʲ ɸʲʷ ɬʲʷ̱] become [w w w]; palatal or velar fricatives become resonants; glottal fricatives become non-glottal fricative palatal or velar; [ɸ] become [w]; [ɬʷ̱] become [w]; [ɬ̱] become [j]. Before a voiceless consonant other than a resonant, [ɲ͡m ŋ͡m ŋ͡mʷ m mʲ n̻ n̻ʲ n nʲ ṉ nʲ̱ ɲ ŋ ŋʷ] become [ w w]; non-sibilant coronal rounded nasals become non-nasal non-coronal velar voiced semivowels; rounded palatalised nasals become non-front; [mʷ mʲʷ] become [w w].
• Consonants [ɲ͡m d͡ɮ̻ ɬ̻ʷ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding consonant other than a resonant. After a voiced stop or nasal, non-bilabial fricatives other than [ç xʷ] become resonants; palatoalveolar fricative laterals become non-coronal semivowels; bilabial fricatives become non-bilabial velar semivowels; palatoalveolar fricative sibilants become alveolar apical; [ɸʲ ɸʲʷ] become [w w]; [ç xʷ] become [j w]; [ɸ] become [w]; glottal fricatives become non-glottal fricative palatal or velar; [ɬʲʷ̱] become [w]; [ɬʷ̱] become [w]; [ɬ̱] become [j]. After a voiceless consonant other than a resonant, [ɲ͡m ŋ͡m ŋ͡mʷ m mʲ n̻ n̻ʲ n nʲ ṉ nʲ̱ ɲ ŋ ŋʷ] become [ w w]; coronal rounded nasals become non-nasal non-coronal velar voiced semivowels; rounded palatalised nasals become non-front; [mʷ mʲʷ] become [w w].
• Voiceless stops [c͡p k t͡ɬʷ ...] persistently become aspirated [c͡pʰ kʰ t͡ɬʰʷ ...] after a glottal fricative.

Some words

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