Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C)V

C: a consonant
V: a vowel

Allophony

• Coronal stops [tʰ d̤ ʈ ...] become affricate sibilants [t͡sʰ d͡z̤ ʈ͡ʂ ...] before a non-nasal coronal fricative.
• Unaspirated voiced vowels and non-glottal fricative voiced consonants other than fricatives [m ɖ i ...] become breathy-voiced [m̤ ɖ̤ i̤ ...] after a breathy-voiced consonant.
• Nasals [m̤ n̤ ɳ̤ ...] persistently become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent or nasal.
• Unaspirated voiced vowels and non-glottal fricative voiced semivowels [j i e ...] become breathy-voiced [j̤ i̤ e̤ ...] before a breathy-voiced consonant.
• Unaspirated voiced vowels and non-glottal fricative voiced consonants other than fricatives [m ɖ i ...] persistently become breathy-voiced [m̤ ɖ̤ i̤ ...] before a breathy-voiced consonant.
• Velar stops or nasals [ŋ̤ ŋ kʰ k] become rounded [ŋ̤ʷ ŋʷ kʰʷ kʷ] before a high rounded vowel or semivowel.
• Unrounded non-palatal non-bilabial consonants [n̤ ʈʰ ʈ͡ʂʰ ...] become rounded [n̤ʷ ʈʰʷ ʈ͡ʂʰʷ ...] after a rounded consonant.
• Short non-nasal voiced consonants [b̤ d͡z̤ ʐ ...] become voiceless [pʰ t͡sʰ ʂ ...] after a voiceless aspirated stop. Breathy-voiced sonorants become unaspirated.
• [n̤ n n̤ʷ nʷ ɳ̤ʷ ɳʷ tʰ t d̤ d tʰʷ tʷ d̤ʷ dʷ ʈʰʷ ʈʷ ɖ̤ʷ ɖʷ t͡sʰ t͡s d͡z̤ d͡z t͡sʰʷ t͡sʷ d͡z̤ʷ d͡zʷ ʈ͡ʂʰʷ ʈ͡ʂʷ ɖ͡ʐ̤ʷ ɖ͡ʐʷ s z sʷ zʷ ʂʷ ʐʷ r̥ r̤ r r̥ʷ r̤ʷ rʷ] become palatalised before a front high vowel or a high palatal semivowel. Rounded consonants become unrounded; retroflex obstruents or nasals become non-front.
• Non-pharyngeal non-front alveolar consonants [n̤ d̤ʷ s ...] persistently become palatalised [n̤ʲ d̤ʲ sʲ ...] before a front vowel or semivowel. Rounded consonants become unrounded.
• Non-pharyngeal consonants other than semivowels or unrounded retroflex obstruents or nasals [m̤ tʷ t͡sʲ ...] assimilate in palatalisation to a following high tense vowel or semivowel. Before a front high tense vowel or a high palatal tense semivowel, rounded consonants become unrounded; retroflex obstruents or nasals become non-front.
• Coronal consonants [n̤ ʈ ʈ͡ʂʰʷ ...] persistently assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a following fricative. Before a retroflex fricative, palatalised consonants become non-front.
• Retroflex trills [r̢̥ r̢ r̢̤ʷ ...] persistently become taps [ɽ̥ ɽ ɽ̤ʷ ...].
• Non-retroflex alveolar consonants [n̤ tʲ s ...] persistently become retroflex [ɳ̤ ʈ ʂ ...] after a retroflex consonant. Palatalised consonants become non-front.
• Retroflex consonants [ɳ̤ ʈ͡ʂʰ r̢̥ ...] become non-retroflex [n̤̱̺ t͡ʃ̺ʰ j̥ ...] after a non-low front vowel or a front semivowel. Taps or trills become non-coronal palatal semivowels; non-affricate stops become affricate sibilants; rounded taps or trills become unrounded.
• Mid-high vowels [e e̤ o o̤] become high [i i̤ u ṳ] before a semivowel.
• Non-glottal stop unaspirated obstruents [p k d͡ʒ̺ʷ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent.
• Consonants [m̤ dʲ t͡ʃ̺ʷ ...] assimilate in voice to a following obstruent or nasal. Before a voiceless obstruent, nasals become non-nasal; breathy-voiced resonants become unaspirated; palatoalveolar nasals become affricate sibilants.
• Consonants [m̤ ʈʰ t͡ʃ̺ʰʷ ...] assimilate in voice to a following obstruent or nasal and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiceless obstruent or pause, nasals become non-nasal; breathy-voiced resonants become unaspirated; palatoalveolar nasals become affricate sibilants.
• Stops [pʰ ɖ̤ t͡sʷ ...] persistently assimilate in aspiration to a following obstruent or nasal.
• Consonants [m̤ ʈʰ t͡ʃ̺ʰʷ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent or nasal. After a voiceless obstruent, nasals become non-nasal; breathy-voiced resonants become unaspirated; palatoalveolar nasals become affricate sibilants.
• Non-front non-bilabial consonants other than semivowels [n̤ ɖʷ d͡ʒ̺̤ʷ ...] assimilate in rounding to a following consonant.
• Non-pharyngeal consonants other than semivowels or [ɳ̤ ɳ ɲ̤ ɲ ʈʰ ʈ ɖ̤ ɖ cʰ c ɟ̤ ɟ ʈ͡ʂʰ ʈ͡ʂ ɖ͡ʐ̤ ɖ͡ʐ ʂ ʐ r̢̥ r̢̤ r̢ ɽ̥ ɽ̤ ɽ], i.e. [m̤ d̤ʷ t͡ʃ̺ʰ ...], assimilate in palatalisation to a following consonant and become non-front word-finally. Before a front consonant, rounded consonants become unrounded; retroflex consonants become non-front.

Some words

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