Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C₁)V(C₂)(C₃)

C₁: a consonant
V: a vowel
C₂: one of /m n̻ ŋ g r̻ w/
C₃: a consonant other than /b d̻/

Allophony

• Consonants [m tʰ̻ ɗ̰̻ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following obstruent or nasal and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiceless consonant other than [h] or pause, nasals become non-nasal; creaky-voiced implosives become non-creaky-voiced voiced nasals. Before a voiced obstruent or nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated.
• Unrounded consonants [m t̻ s̻ ...] become rounded [ŋʷ tʷ̻ sʷ̻ ...] before a rounded semivowel. Bilabial stops or nasals become non-bilabial velar.
• Voiceless stops [pʰ t̻ kʰ ...] assimilate in aspiration to a preceding consonant other than a resonant.
• Vowels [i e ɛ ...] become nasal [ĩ ẽ ɛ̃ ...] before a nasal.
• Non-pharyngeal unrounded consonants [m t̻ s̻ ...] become front [mʲ t̻ʲ s̻ʲ ...] before a front high vowel.
• Voiceless stops [pʰ t̻ cʰ ...] persistently assimilate in aspiration to a following consonant other than a resonant and become aspirated word-finally.
• Obstruents [pʰ dʷ̻ gʷ ...] assimilate in voice to a following obstruent or nasal and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiced obstruent or nasal, aspirated stops become unaspirated. Before a voiceless obstruent or pause, creaky-voiced implosives become non-creaky-voiced voiced nasals.
• [p pʲ t̻ tʷ̻ t̻ʲ c k kʷ ɓ̰ ɓ̰ʲ ɗ̰̻ ɗ̰ʷ̻ ɗ̰̻ʲ] persistently assimilate in glottalisation to a following non-nasal consonant other than a resonant. Before a creaky-voiced implosive, [p pʲ] are deleted.
• Unaspirated obstruents [p d̻ʲ ɓ̰ʲ ...] assimilate in voice to a preceding non-nasal consonant other than a resonant. After a voiced obstruent, non-implosive ejective stops become implosives. After a voiceless consonant other than a resonant, creaky-voiced implosives become non-glottalised voiced nasals.
• Central low vowels [a ã] persistently become non-low front [ɛ ɛ̃] before a front consonant.
• Alveolar stops [tʰ̻ dʷ̻ ɗ̰̻ ...] become affricate sibilants [t͡sʰ̻ d͡zʷ̻ ɗ͡z̰̻ ...] before a non-nasal alveolar fricative.
• Low vowels [a ã] become mid [ɜ ɜ̃] before a semivowel.
• Voiced vowels [i ẽ ɜ ...] become creaky-voiced [ḭ ḛ̃ ɜ̰ ...] after a creaky-voiced implosive.
• Unaspirated stops [p g ɗ̰̻ʲ ...] assimilate in glottalisation to a preceding non-nasal consonant other than a resonant. After a glottalised stop, [p pʲ ɟ g gʷ] are deleted; voiceless implosives become non-glottalised voiced nasals; non-implosive non-palatal or velar voiced stops become implosives; [ɗ͡s̻ ɗ͡sʷ̻ ɗ͡s̻ʲ] become [n̻ nʷ̻ n̻ʲ].
• Consonants [m kʼ d͡z̻ʲ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding consonant other than a resonant. After a voiceless consonant other than a resonant, creaky-voiced implosives become non-glottalised voiced nasals; nasals become non-nasal; [ɗ͡z̰̻ ɗ͡z̰ʷ̻ ɗ͡z̰̻ʲ] become [n̻ nʷ̻ n̻ʲ]. After a voiced obstruent or nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated; ejective stops become implosives; [hʲ] become [j].
• Unrounded consonants [m ɟ t͡s̻ʲʼ ...] become rounded [ŋʷ gʷ̟ t͡sʷ̻ʼ ...] after a rounded consonant. Front consonants become non-front; [m mʲ pʰ p b pʰʲ pʲ bʲ ɓ̥ ɓ ɓ̰] become [ŋʷ ŋʷ kʰʷ kʷ gʷ kʰʷ kʷ gʷ ].
• Nasals [m nʷ̻ ŋʷ̟ ...] become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent.
• Nasals [m nʷ̻ ŋʷ̟ ...] persistently become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent or nasal.
• Before a bilabial stop or nasal, [ŋʷ̟ cʼ kʰʷ̟ kʷ̟ kʷ̟ʼ gʷ̟ kʼ] become [ŋʷ kʰʷ kʷ kʷʼ gʷ ]; [ɲ cʰ c ɟ] become [mʲ pʰʲ pʲ bʲ]; unrounded velar stops or nasals other than [kʼ] become non-velar non-palatal or velar bilabial stops or nasals.

Some words

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