Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C₁)V(C₂)(C₃)

C₁: a consonant
V: a vowel
C₂: a consonant other than /b d̻/
C₃: a non-front consonant other than a stop; i.e. one of /m n̻ s̻ z̻ x ɣ r̻ w/

Allophony

• Obstruents [^mb b ɓ̰ ...] assimilate in voice to a following obstruent or nasal. Before a voiceless obstruent, prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised; implosives become non-implosive.
• Stops or nasals other than [pʼ tʼ̻], i.e. [m ^ŋg d̻ ...], assimilate in voice to a following obstruent. Before a voiceless obstruent, prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised; implosives become non-implosive; stops or nasals other than stops become stops; [nʲ̱] become [t͡ɕ].
• High vowels and semivowels [j w i u] become non-high [e̯ o̯ e o] before a trill.
• [a] become [ɛ] before a front consonant.
• Voiced vowels and semivowels [j o̯ e ...] become creaky-voiced [ɟ ḛ ...] before a glottalised stop. Semivowels become non-glottalised obstruents.
• Non-ejective voiced vowels and non-glottal stop voiced semivowels [j o̯ e ...] become creaky-voiced [ɟ ḛ ...] before a creaky-voiced implosive. Semivowels become non-glottalised obstruents.
• Mid-high semivowels [e̯ o̯] persistently become mid-low [ɛ̯ ɔ̯] before a lax vowel.
• Velar obstruents [^ŋg g x ...] become uvular [ χ ...] before a non-front non-near-high vowel or an uvular-velar or uvular semivowel. [^ŋg g gʷ] are deleted.
• Prenasalised stops [^mb ^ɲɟ ^mɓ̰ ...] persistently become non-prenasalised [b ɟ ɓ̰ ...] after an obstruent.
• Consonants other than [pʼ tʼ̻], i.e. [m d̻ ç ...], persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent or nasal. After a voiced obstruent or nasal, [q] are deleted. After a voiceless obstruent, prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised; implosives become non-implosive; nasals become non-nasal; [nʲ̱] become [t͡ɕ].
• Consonants other than [pʼ tʼ̻], i.e. [m k χ ...], assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent or nasal. After a voiced obstruent or nasal, [q] are deleted. After a voiceless obstruent, prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised; creaky-voiced implosives become non-implosive; nasals become non-nasal; [nʲ̱] become [t͡ɕ].
• Non-front non-bilabial consonants other than semivowels [n̻ k z̻ ...] persistently assimilate in rounding to a following rounded consonant and become unrounded word-finally.
• Non-front non-bilabial consonants other than semivowels [n̻ tʼ̻ʷ z̻ʷ ...] persistently assimilate in rounding to a following consonant.
• Non-glottal fricative obstruents other than non-implosive ejective stops [^mb d̻ʷ s̻ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent. After a voiceless obstruent, prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised; creaky-voiced implosives become non-implosive. After a voiced obstruent, [q qʷ] are deleted.
• Obstruents other than [z̻ z̻ʷ ʝ ɣ ɣʷ ʁ ʁʷ], i.e. [^mb t̻ qʷ ...], assimilate in glottalisation to a preceding obstruent. After a glottalised stop, non-implosive voiced stops become ejective; obstruents other than stops become stops; non-glottalised prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised.
• Consonants other than [pʼ tʼ̻ tʼ̻ʷ cʼ kʼ kʼʷ t͡sʼ̻ t͡sʼ̻ʷ t͡ɕʼ], i.e. [m ɟ x ...], assimilate in voice to a following obstruent or nasal. Before a voiced obstruent or nasal, [qʼ qʼʷ] are deleted; [q qʷ] are deleted. Before a voiceless obstruent, prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised; creaky-voiced implosives become non-implosive; nasals become non-nasal; [nʲ̱] become [t͡ɕ].
• Non-front vowels and velar or uvular semivowels [w̥ ɔ̯̥ o ...] assimilate in backness or velarisation to a following semivowel. Before a semivowel, semivowels are deleted; back vowels become unrounded.
• Central vowels [ɨ ɘ a ...] become front [i e ɛ ...] after a front consonant. Low vowels become non-low.
• Non-front vowels and velar or uvular semivowels [w̥ ɨ o ...] become front [j̥ i e ...] after a front consonant. Rounded vowels and semivowels become unrounded; low vowels become non-low.
• Obstruents other than [z̻ z̻ʷ ʝ ɣ ɣʷ ʁ ʁʷ], i.e. [^mb t̻ʷ ɓ̰ ...], persistently assimilate in glottalisation to a following obstruent and become non-glottalised word-finally. Before a glottalised stop, non-implosive voiced stops become ejective; obstruents other than stops become stops; non-implosive prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised; voiceless implosives become non-implosive.
• Dorsal obstruents [^ɲɟ g ʝ ...] assimilate in uvularity to a following dorsal obstruent. Before an uvular obstruent, palatal obstruents become uvular; velar voiced stops are deleted.
• [ɑ ɑ̰] become [ɔ ɔ̰] before a semivowel.
• Mid-high vowels and semivowels [e̯̥ o̯ ɘ ...] become lax [ɛ̯̥ ɔ̯ ɜ ...] before a trill.
• Non-ejective voiced vowels and non-glottal stop voiced consonants other than fricatives [m d̻ ɛ̯ ...] become creaky-voiced [ɓ tʼ̻ ...] after a creaky-voiced implosive. Consonants other than stops become non-glottalised; non-implosive stops become ejective; non-implosive prenasalised stops become non-prenasalised; nasals become non-nasal; trills become obstruents or nasals; [j w] become [ɟ gʷ]; [nʲ̱] become [r̻ʲ].

Some words

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