Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C)(R)V(N)

C: a consonant
R: a sonorant; i.e. one of /m n̻ ŋ mː nː̻ ŋː j w/
V: a vowel
N: a nasal; i.e. one of /m n̻ ŋ mː nː̻ ŋː/

Allophony

• [t̻ʰ] become [t͡s̻ʰ] before a high tense vowel or semivowel.
• Non-nasal consonants [k͡pʰ t̻ʰ t͡s̻ʰ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following obstruent or nasal and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiced obstruent or nasal, aspirated stops become unaspirated.
• Obstruents or nasals [m g͡b k ...] become front [mʲ d͡ʑʷ t͡ɕ ...] before a palatal semivowel. Velar stops become coronal palatalised affricates; bilabial-velar stops become non-bilabial rounded; [x ɣ] become [ɕ ʑ].
• Palatal nasals [ɲ ɲː] become alveopalatal [ṉʲ nː̱ʲ] before an alveopalatal obstruent.
• Non-nasal consonants [k͡pʰ tʲ̻ t͡ɕʷ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent or nasal. After a voiced obstruent or nasal, aspirated stops become unaspirated.
• [n̻ nʲ̻ ṉʲ ɲ ŋ nː̻ nːʲ̻ nː̱ʲ ɲː ŋː k͡pʰ k͡p g͡b t̻ʰ t̻ d̻ tʲ̻ʰ tʲ̻ dʲ̻ kʰ k g t͡s̻ʰ t͡s̻ d͡z̻ t͡sʲ̻ʰ t͡sʲ̻ d͡zʲ̻ t͡ɕʰ t͡ɕ d͡ʑ s̻ z̻ sʲ̻ zʲ̻ ɕ ʑ x ɣ] assimilate in labiality and labiodentality to a following obstruent or nasal. Before a bilabial stop or nasal, non-palatal or velar obstruents or nasals become non-bilabial rounded; [x ɣ] become [k͡p g͡b].
• Non-affricate stops or nasals [ɲ͡m nː̻ bʲ ...] persistently become non-affricate and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent or nasal. Before an alveopalatal obstruent or nasal, stops become affricates; alveolar stops become sibilants. Before one of [ɲ͡m ɲ͡mː], stops become non-bilabial coronal rounded palatalised affricates. Before one of [ɲ ɲː], stops become coronal palatalised affricates.
• Bilabial stops or nasals [ɲ͡m ŋ͡mː pʰ ...] assimilate in dorsality and uvularity and palatalisation and whether palatal or palatalised velar to a following obstruent or nasal and become non-palatal or velar word-finally. Before a palatal nasal, stops become non-bilabial coronal rounded palatalised affricates.
• Front vowels and semivowels [j̥ j i e] become central [w̥ w ɨ ɘ] after a velar semivowel. Semivowels become velar rounded.
• Short non-nasal voiced consonants [g͡b g z̻ʷ ...] become voiceless [k͡p k s̻ʷ ...] after a voiceless aspirated stop.
• Front obstruents or nasals [ɲ͡m pʲʰ d͡zʲ̻ʷ ...] become velar [ŋ͡m pʰ d͡z̻ʷ ...] after a back high vowel or a high velar semivowel. Palatalised obstruents or nasals become non-velar.
• Back vowels [u o] become central [ʉ ɵ] after a palatal semivowel.
• Non-front vowels [ɨ u ɵ ...] become front [i y ø ...] before a palatal semivowel. [a] become [ɛ].
• Central vowels [ɨ ʉ ɵ ...] become front [i y ø ...] before a non-retroflexed coronal obstruent or nasal. [a] become [ɛ].
• Obstruents [k͡pʰ k d͡ʑ ...] assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent or nasal. After a voiced obstruent or nasal, aspirated stops become unaspirated.
• High palatal semivowels [j̥ j] become velar rounded [w̥ w] before a rounded vowel or semivowel.
• Aspirated stops [k͡pʰ tʲ̻ʰ t͡sʲ̻ʰ ...] become unaspirated [k͡p tʲ̻ t͡sʲ̻ ...].
• [ʉ u ɵ o a] assimilate in backness or velarisation to a preceding semivowel.
• Non-front coronal obstruents or nasals [n̻ t̻ʰʷ d͡ʒ ...] persistently assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a following obstruent sibilant. Before a palatoalveolar obstruent, non-sibilant coronal stops become affricate sibilants.
• [ɛ] become [e] before a nasal.
• Back vowels [u o ɑ] become central [ʉ ɵ a] before a front consonant.
• Voiceless stops [k͡pʰ tʲ̻ʰ t͡sʲ̻ ...] persistently assimilate in aspiration to a preceding obstruent or nasal.
• Obstruents [k͡pʰ k d͡ʑ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following obstruent and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiced obstruent, aspirated stops become unaspirated.
• Obstruents [k͡pʰ k d͡ʑ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following obstruent or nasal and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiced obstruent or nasal, aspirated stops become unaspirated.
• Non-high vowels [e ɘ ɛ ...] persistently become nasal [ẽ ɘ̃ ɛ̃ ...] before a nasal.

Some words

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