Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C₁)(C₂)V(C₃)

C₁: a consonant
C₂: one of /ʕ j/
V: a vowel
C₃: a consonant

Allophony

• Non-nasal consonants [p d̻ˤ s̻ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following consonant other than an approximant and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiced consonant other than an approximant, ejective radicals become non-ejective.
• Palatal stops or nasals [ŋʲ͡n̻ ŋʲ ɟ͡d̻ ...] persistently assimilate in whether palatal or palatalised velar to a following non-affricate palatal stop or nasal.
• Tense vowels and semivowels [j̥ iː e̤ ...] assimilate in frontness or palatalisation to a preceding consonant. After a front consonant, non-front vowels and velar or uvular semivowels become unrounded. After a consonant, unrounded semivowels become glottal fricatives.
• Non-back tense vowels and non-velarised tense semivowels [j̥ ɨ eː ...] assimilate in frontness or palatalisation to a preceding consonant. After a consonant, semivowels become glottal fricatives.
• Alveolar consonants [ɲ͡n̻ gʲ͡d̻ d̻ˤ ...] become palatoalveolar [ɲ͡ṉ ʑ d͡ʒˤ ...] after a palatoalveolar obstruent. Palatal or velar stops become non-palatal or velar fricative sibilants; velar stops become non-velar; non-pharyngealised approximant laterals become non-lateral non-coronal palatal or velar; non-palatal or velar stops become affricate sibilants; [l̻ˤ̥ l̻ˤ] become [ħ ʕ]; [l̻̥ l̻] become [j̥ j].
• Short non-nasal voiced consonants [b ɟ ʒ ...] become voiceless [p c ʃ ...] after a voiceless glottal fricative.
• Non-low central vowels [ɨ ɨː ɘ̤ ...] become front [i iː e̤ ...] after a palatal semivowel.
• Obstruents [p t̻ t͡ʃ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following obstruent and become voiceless word-finally.
• Short non-affricate non-palatal or velar coronal stops or nasals [n̻ ṉ d̻ ...] become taps [ɾ̻̃ ɾ̻̃ ɾ̻ ...] between a vowel or an approximant and a vowel or an approximant. Palatoalveolar nasals become alveolar.
• [p b pˤ bˤ c͡t̻ ɟ͡d̻ kʲ͡t̻ gʲ͡d̻ k͡t̻ g͡d̻ k͡t̻ˤ̟ g͡d̻ˤ̟ k͡t̻ˤ g͡d̻ˤ t̻ d̻ t̻ˤ d̻ˤ c ɟ kʲ gʲ k g kˤ̟ gˤ̟ kˤ gˤ ʔˁ ʔ t͡ʃ d͡ʒ t͡ʃˤ d͡ʒˤ s̻ z̻ s̻ˤ z̻ˤ ʃ ʒ ʃˤ ʒˤ ɕ ʑ ħ ʕ h ɦ ɾ̻̃ ɾ̻ˤ̃ ɾ̻̥ ɾ̻ ɾ̻ˤ̥ ɾ̻ˤ l̻̥ l̻ l̻ˤ̥ l̻ˤ l̻ʲ̥ l̻ʲ j̥ j w̥ w] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent or nasal. After a voiced obstruent or nasal, ejective radicals become non-ejective.
• Non-low vowels and semivowels [j̥ ɨ̤ eː ...] persistently become lax [h ɜ̤ ɛː ...] before a pharyngealised consonant. High vowels become non-high; front high vowels become non-front; back high vowels become non-back unrounded; semivowels other than [j̥] become uvular stops; [j̥] become [h].
• Non-low central vowels [ɨ ɘ ɜ ...] persistently become front [i e ɛ ...] before a palatal semivowel.
• Glottals [ʔ h ɦ] become pharyngeals [ʔˁ ħ ʕ] before a pharyngealised consonant. Glottals other than [ʔ] become non-glottal fricative.
• Before a palatal semivowel, back vowels become unrounded central; [w̥ w] become [kʷ gʷ].
• Non-breathy-voiced voiced vowels [i e ɛː ...] become creaky-voiced [ḭ ḛ ɛː̰ ...] before an ejective radical.
• Non-pharyngealised non-front non-dorsal consonants [m ʔ h ...] persistently become front [mʲ j j̥ ...] after a front consonant except a semivowel. Glottal fricatives become palatal; [h] become [j̥]; [ʔ] become [j].
• Stops [p k͡t̻ˤ kʷ ...] become aspirated [pʰ k͡t̻ʰˤ kʰʷ ...] before a glottal fricative.
• Unaspirated obstruents other than [z̻ z̻ˤ z̻ʲ ʒ ʒˤ ʑ], i.e. [p t̻ kˤ ...], become ejective [pʼ t̻ʼ kˤʼ ...] after an ejective radical. Voiced stops become ejective.
• [h] become stops and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent or nasal. Before a palatoalveolar-palatal or velar nasal, [h] become [ʃ].
• Unaspirated voiced vowels and non-glottal fricative voiced semivowels [j e ɛː ...] persistently become breathy-voiced [j̤ e̤ ɛ̤ː ...] before a breathy-voiced consonant. Creaky-voiced vowels become non-creaky-voiced.
• Unaspirated voiced vowels and non-glottal fricative voiced consonants other than fricatives or [ʕ], i.e. [m d̻ u ...], become breathy-voiced [m̤ d̻̤ ṳ ...] before a breathy-voiced consonant. Creaky-voiced vowels become non-creaky-voiced.
• Central low vowels [a a̰ a̤ː ...] become back [ɑ ɑ̰ ɑ̤ː ...] before an uvular stop.
• Coronal consonants [ɲ͡n̻̤ k͡t̻ s̻ ...] persistently assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a following obstruent sibilant. Before a palatoalveolar obstruent sibilant, palatal or velar stops become non-dorsal fricative sibilants; taps become non-coronal semivowels; non-sibilant coronal non-palatal or velar stops become affricate sibilants; [c͡t̻ʰ ɟ͡d̻̤ kʲ͡t̻ʰ gʲ͡d̻̤ k͡t̻ʰ̟ k͡t̻ʰ g͡d̻̤ k͡t̻ʰˤ̟ g͡d̻̤ˤ̟ k͡t̻ʰˤ g͡d̻̤ˤ l̻̤ˤ] become [ɕ ʑ ɕ ʑ ʃ ʃ ʒ ʃˤ ʒˤ ʃˤ ʒˤ ʕ]; velar stops become non-back; non-pharyngealised non-front resonants become front; non-pharyngealised approximant laterals become non-lateral non-coronal dorsal; pharyngealised taps become non-pharyngealised front; pharyngealised approximants become radicals.
• Unaspirated voiced vowels and non-glottal fricative voiced consonants other than fricatives or [ʕ], i.e. [m ɟ u ...], persistently become breathy-voiced [m̤ ɟ̤ ṳ ...] after a breathy-voiced consonant. Creaky-voiced vowels become non-creaky-voiced.
• Non-ejective unaspirated obstruents other than [z̻ z̻ˤ z̻ʲ ʒ ʒˤ ʑ], i.e. [p t̻ˤ t͡s̻ ...], become ejective [pʼ t̻ˤʼ t͡s̻ʼ ...] before an ejective radical. Voiced stops become ejective.
• Unaspirated stops [p t̻ kˤ ...] persistently become aspirated [pʰ t̻ʰ kʰˤ ...] after an aspirated phone except a breathy-voiced vowel or resonant. Ejective stops become non-ejective.
• Short voiced fricatives [z̻ z̻ʲ ʒˤ ...] become resonants [ɾ̻ ɾ̻ʲ e̯ ...] between a vowel or semivowel and a vowel or semivowel. Palatoalveolar fricatives become non-coronal semivowels; [ʒ ʒˤ] become [j e̯].
• Palatoalveolar-palatal nasals [ɲ͡ṉ̤ ɲ͡ṉ ŋʲ͡ṉ̤ ŋʲ͡ṉ] persistently become alveopalatal [ṉ̤ʲ ṉʲ ṉ̤ʲ ṉʲ] before a non-dorsal palatoalveolar obstruent or nasal.
• Aspirated stops [pʰ g͡d̻̤ˤ g̤ˤ̟ ...] persistently become unaspirated [p g͡d̻ˤ gˤ̟ ...].
• Stops [pʰ g͡d̻ˤ g̤ˤ̟ ...] assimilate in aspiration to a following consonant other than a resonant. Before an aspirated consonant other than a resonant, ejective stops become non-ejective.
• Glottals [ʔ h ɦ] persistently become pharyngeals [ʔˁ ħ ʕ] after a pharyngealised consonant. Glottals other than [ʔ] become unaspirated.
• Unaspirated obstruents other than [z̻ z̻ˤ z̻ʲ ʒ ʒˤ ʑ], i.e. [p t̻ˤ t͡s̻ʼ ...], assimilate in glottalisation to a preceding non-nasal consonant other than a resonant. After an ejective consonant, voiced stops become ejective.
• Nasals [m̤ ɲ͡ṉ̤ ṉ̤ ...] become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent or nasal. Before a palatalised velar stop or nasal, pharyngealised nasals other than [ŋ͡ṉ̤ˤ ŋ͡ṉˤ] become non-palatalised velar velar. Before a palatal stop or nasal, pharyngealised nasals other than [ŋ̤ˤ̟ ŋˤ̟] become velar. Before a palatalised obstruent or nasal, non-bilabial pharyngealised nasals become non-front.
• Before an alveolar approximant, non-front taps other than [ɾ̻̃ ɾ̻] become radicals; nasal taps other than [ɾ̻̃] become non-nasal alveolar approximants; [ɾ̻̃ ɾ̻ʲ̥̃ ɾ̻̤ʲ̃ ɾ̻ʲ̃ ɾ̻ ɾ̻ʲ̥ ɾ̻̤ʲ ɾ̻ʲ] become [ j̥ j̤ j j̥ j̤ j]; [ɾ̻̤ˤ̃ ɾ̻̤ˤ] become [ʕ ʕ]; [ɾ̻̥̃ ɾ̻̥] become [h h].
• Tense vowels and semivowels [j̥̃ ḭ e̤ ...] persistently become lax [h ɜ̰ ɛ̤ ...] after a pharyngealised consonant. High vowels become non-high; front high vowels become non-front; back high vowels become non-back unrounded; velar semivowels become uvular stops or nasals; [j̥̃ j̥] become [h h]; [j̃ j] are deleted; [j̤̃] become [ɦ]; [j̤] become [ɦ].
• [j̥̃ j̤̃ j̃ ẽ̥̯ ẽ̤̯ ẽ̯ ɛ̥̯̃ ɛ̤̯̃ ɛ̯̃ j̥ j̤ j e̥̯ e̤̯ e̯ ɛ̥̯ ɛ̤̯ ɛ̯ ɨ ɨ̤ ɨ̰ ɨː ɨ̤ː ɨː̰ ɘ ɘ̤ ɘ̰ ɘː ɘ̤ː ɘː̰ ɜ ɜ̤ ɜ̰ ɜː ɜ̤ː ɜː̰] persistently assimilate in frontness or palatalisation to a following consonant. Before a consonant, semivowels become radicals; voiceless semivowels become glottal fricatives; [j̥̃ j̤̃ ẽ̥̯ ẽ̤̯ ɛ̥̯̃ ɛ̤̯̃] become [h ɦ h ɦ h ɦ].
• Non-back non-low vowels and non-velarised semivowels [j̥̃ i ɘ ...] assimilate in frontness or palatalisation to a following consonant. Before a consonant, semivowels become radicals; [j̥̃ j̤̃ ẽ̥̯ ẽ̤̯ ɛ̥̯̃ ɛ̤̯̃] become [h ɦ h ɦ h ɦ]; voiceless semivowels become glottal fricatives.
• Dorsal stops or nasals [ɲ͡n̻̤ ŋ̤ˤ c ...] persistently assimilate in uvularity to a following non-affricate dorsal stop or nasal. Before an uvular stop or nasal, non-back stops or nasals become uvular; palatal stops or nasals become uvular; palatalised velar stops or nasals become non-palatalised velar.

Some words

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