Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C₁)V(C₂)

C₁: a consonant
V: a vowel
C₂: a consonant other than /r/

Allophony

• Consonants other than [m̰ n̰ ŋ̰], i.e. [m b̰ g̰ ...], persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent or nasal. After a voiceless obstruent or nasal, [b b̰] become [f f]; [m] become [β̞̥̃].
• Non-ejective voiced vowels and non-glottal stop voiced consonants other than [v], i.e. [m g i ...], become creaky-voiced [m̰ g̰ ḭ ...] before a creaky-voiced stop or nasal.
• Non-ejective voiced vowels and non-glottal stop voiced consonants other than [v], i.e. [m g i ...], persistently become creaky-voiced [m̰ g̰ ḭ ...] before a creaky-voiced consonant.
• Stops [b tʼ k ...] assimilate in glottalisation to a preceding obstruent or nasal.
• Non-pharyngeal non-palatal consonants [m t β̞̥̃ ...] become front [mʲ tʲ β̞̥ʲ̃ ...] before a palatal semivowel.
• Non-pharyngeal consonants other than palatal consonants [m t r̥ ...] assimilate in palatalisation to a following consonant.
• Nasals [m n ɲ̥ ...] persistently become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent or nasal. Before a labial obstruent or nasal, voiceless nasals become bilabial approximants.
• Labiodental voiced fricatives [v vʲ] assimilate in resonancy and nasality and vibrancy and laterality to a preceding non-palatal or velar approximant.
• Obstruents [b tʲ k ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following obstruent. Before a voiceless obstruent, bilabial stops become labiodental fricatives; [b̰ bʲ̰] become [f fʲ].
• Non-glottalised non-glottal fricative obstruents [b tʲ g ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent. After a voiceless obstruent, bilabial stops become labiodental fricatives.
• Voiceless stops [t tʲ cʼ ...] become aspirated [tʰ tʲʰ cʰ ...] before a voiceless fricative. Ejective stops become non-glottalised.
• Labial obstruents or nasals [m ɱ̰ bʲ ...] assimilate in dorsality and uvularity and palatalisation and whether palatal or palatalised velar to a following obstruent or nasal. Before a palatal or velar stop or nasal, fricatives become bilabial stops or nasals.
• Back vowels [u ṵ o o̰] persistently become unrounded central [ɨ ɨ̰ ɘ ɘ̰] before a semivowel.
• [ɲ͡m ŋ͡m ɲ͡ɱ ŋ͡ɱ m mʲ ɱ ɱʲ n̥ n n̥ʲ nʲ ɲ̥ ɲ ŋ̥ ŋ c͡p ɟ͡b ɟ͡b̰ k͡p g͡b g͡b̰ b b̰ bʲ bʲ̰ tʰ t tʼ d d̰ tʲʰ tʲ tʼʲ dʲ dʲ̰ cʰ c cʼ ɟ ɟ̰ kʰ k kʼ g g̰ f v fʲ vʲ β̞̥̃ β̞̥ʲ̃ ʋ̃ ʋʲ̃ r̥ r r̥ʲ rʲ ɾ̥ ɾ ɾ̥ʲ ɾʲ β̞̥ β̞ β̞̥ʲ β̞ʲ ʋ ʋʲ j̥ j] persistently assimilate in voice to a following obstruent or nasal. Before a voiceless obstruent or nasal, non-palatal or velar bilabial stops become labiodental fricatives; [ɱ ɱʲ] become [β̞̥̃ β̞̥ʲ̃]; [b̰ bʲ̰] become [f fʲ]; [m mʲ] become [β̞̥̃ β̞̥ʲ̃].
• Consonants other than [ɲ͡m̰ ŋ͡m̰ ɲ͡ɱ̰ ŋ͡ɱ̰ m̰ mʲ̰ ɱ̰ ɱʲ̰ n̰ nʲ̰ ɲ̰ ŋ̰ r̰ rʲ̰ ɾ̰ ɾʲ̰ β̞̰ β̞ʲ̰ j̰], i.e. [ɲ͡m̥ b v ...], assimilate in voice to a following obstruent or nasal and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiceless obstruent or nasal or pause, non-palatal or velar bilabial stops become labiodental fricatives; [m mʲ] become [β̞̥̃ β̞̥ʲ̃]; [b̰ bʲ̰] become [f fʲ]; [ɱ ɱʲ] become [β̞̥̃ β̞̥ʲ̃].
• Central vowels [ɨ ɘ a ...] become front [i e ɛ ...] before a semivowel. Low vowels become non-low.
• Back vowels [u ṵ o o̰] become unrounded central [ɨ ɨ̰ ɘ ɘ̰] after a front consonant.
• Central vowels [ɨ ɘ a ...] become front [i e ɛ ...] before a front consonant. Lax vowels become non-low.

Some words

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