Phonemic inventory
Consonants
| | Bilabial-palatal | | Bilabial-velar | | Fronted pharyng. bilabial-velar | | Pharyng. bilabial-velar | | Bilabial-uvular | | Pharyng. bilabial-uvular | | Bilabial | | Pharyng. bilabial | | Palatalised bilabial | | Alveolar | | Rounded alveolar | | Pharyng. alveolar | | Palatalised alveolar | | Rounded palatalised alveolar | | Alveolar sibilant | | Pharyng. alveolar sibilant | | Palatal | | Velar | | Fronted pharyng. velar | | Pharyng. velar | | Uvular | | Pharyng. uvular | | Pharyngeal | | Glottal |
Nasal | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | m | | | | | | | | | | | | n | | | | nʷ | | | | | | | | nʲ | | | | nʲʷ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Stop | | c͡p | | ɟ͡b | | k͡p | | g͡b | | | | g͡b̟ˤ | | | | g͡bˤ | | q͡p | | ɢ͡b | | | | ɢ͡bˤ | | p | | b | | | | bˤ | | pʲ | | | | t | tʼ | d | | | | | | | | dˤ | | | | | | | | | | t͡s | t͡sʼ | d͡z | | | | d͡zˤ | | c | cʼ | ɟ | | k | kʼ | g | | | | g̟ˤ | | | | gˤ | | q | qʼ | ɢ | | | | ɢˤ | | | | | | | | |
Fricative | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | s | | z | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ʕ | | h | | |
Approximant | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | β̞ | | | | | | | | β̞ʲ | | l̥ | | l | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | j̥ | | j | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Vowels
| | Front | | Central | | Back |
High | | i | | | | u |
Mid-low | | ɛ | | | | ɔ |
Low | | | | a | | |
Syllable structure
(C1)V(C2)
C1: a consonant
V: a vowel
C2: one of /m n nʷ nʲ nʲʷ c͡p k͡p g͡b̟ˤ g͡bˤ q͡p ɢ͡bˤ p bˤ pʲ t tʼ c cʼ k kʼ q qʼ t͡s t͡sʼ s ʕ h l j̥ j/
Allophony
- Tense vowels and semivowels [j̥ j i u] become non-high lax [ɛ̥̯ ɛ̯ ɛ ɔ] before a pharyngealised consonant.
- Non-front vowels [u ɔ a] become front [i ɛ æ] after a front consonant. Vowels other than [a] become unrounded.
- [a] become [ɑ] before a pharyngealised consonant.
- Non-front vowels [u ɔ a ɑ] persistently assimilate in backness to a preceding uvular consonant. After a mid-low semivowel, rounded vowels become unrounded.
- Consonants [m bˤ ɢˤ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following consonant other than an approximant. Before a voiceless consonant other than an approximant, nasals become non-nasal. Before a voiced consonant other than an approximant, ejective stops become non-ejective pharyngealised; [h] are deleted; [cʼ] become [g̟ˤ].
- Before a front high vowel or a high palatal semivowel, non-pharyngealised uvular stops become non-back non-front glottal fricatives; [q͡p] become [h].
- Non-ejective voiceless obstruents other than [s], i.e. [c͡p pˤ c ...], persistently become aspirated [c͡pʰ pʰˤ cʰ ...] after a glottal fricative.
- Voiced obstruents [ɟ͡b b g̟ˤ ...] become nasals [ɲ͡m m ŋ̟ˤ ...] before a nasal. Affricates become non-sibilant coronal nasals; [z] become [l̃].
- Non-pharyngealised non-dorsal consonants [m tʰ t͡sʼ ...] persistently assimilate in palatalisation to a following consonant. Before a front consonant, [h] become [j̥].
- Non-front vowels [ɨ ɜ a ...] assimilate in backness to a following uvular consonant. Before an uvular stop or nasal, [ɨ ɜ] become [u ɔ]. Before a mid-low semivowel, rounded vowels become unrounded.
- Short non-affricate alveolar voiced stops or nasals [n nˤ d ...] become taps [ɾ̃ ɾ̃ˤ ɾ ...] between a vowel or an approximant and a vowel or semivowel. Palatalised stops or nasals become non-front.
- Mid-low vowels and semivowels [ɛ̥̯ ɛ̯ ɜ ...] persistently become low [æ̥̯ æ̯ a ...] before a pharyngealised consonant.
- Dorsal stops or nasals [ɲ͡m g͡b kʰ ...] persistently assimilate in uvularity to a following non-low stop or nasal. Before an uvular stop or nasal, palatal stops or nasals become semivowels; non-back bilabial stops or nasals become non-bilabial; fronted pharyngealised stops become radicals; non-back aspirated stops become unaspirated; [ŋ͡m̟ˤ ŋ̟ˤ] become [ʕ ʕ]; [cʼ] become [e̯].
- Unrounded obstruents or nasals other than non-dorsal bilabial stops or nasals [ɲ͡m g͡bˤ k̟ˤ ...] assimilate in labiality and labiodentality to a following consonant other than one of [ħ ʕ h] and become non-bilabial word-finally. Before a bilabial consonant, alveolar obstruents or nasals become non-bilabial; non-dorsal obstruents or nasals become rounded.
- Tense vowels and semivowels [ẽ̯ j i ...] persistently become lax [ɛ̯̃ ɛ̯ ɛ ...] after a pharyngealised consonant. High vowels and semivowels become non-high.
- Non-pharyngealised non-sibilant coronal alveolar stops or nasals [n tʼ tʲ ...] persistently become non-affricate and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent.
- Consonants [ɲ͡m bˤ d͡z ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding consonant other than a resonant. After a voiced consonant other than a resonant, aspirated consonants become unaspirated; ejective stops become non-ejective pharyngealised; ejective front stops become non-front. After a voiceless consonant other than a resonant, nasals become non-nasal.
- Mid-low vowels [ɛ ɜ ɔ] become tense [e ɘ o] before a palatal or velar voiced consonant.
- Vowels and semivowels [ẽ̥̯ ɛ̥̯ ɘ ...] assimilate in frontness or palatalisation to a following uvular consonant. Before an uvular semivowel, rounded vowels become unrounded. Before an uvular stop or nasal, semivowels become glottal fricatives; [ẽ̥̯ ɛ̥̯̃] become [h h].
- Front vowels and semivowels [ẽ̥̯ j æ̥̯ ...] become non-front [h h ...] before an uvular stop or nasal. Semivowels become glottal fricatives; [ẽ̥̯ ɛ̥̯̃] become [h h].
- Vowels and semivowels [ẽ̥̯ ɛ̥̯ ɘ ...] assimilate in frontness or palatalisation to a following uvular consonant. Before an uvular stop or nasal, semivowels become glottal fricatives; [ẽ̥̯ ɛ̥̯̃] become [h h]. Before an uvular semivowel, rounded vowels become unrounded.
- [n nˤ nʲ ɲ ŋ̟ ŋ ŋ̟ˤ ŋˤ ɴ ɴˤ tʰ t tʼ d tʰˤ tˤ dˤ tʲʰ tʲ tʲʼ dʲ cʰ c cʼ ɟ k̟ʰ k̟ k̟ʼ g̟ kʰ k kʼ g k̟ʰˤ k̟ˤ g̟ˤ kʰˤ kˤ gˤ qʰ q qʼ ɢ qʰˤ qˤ ɢˤ t͡sʰ t͡s t͡sʼ d͡z t͡sʰˤ t͡sˤ d͡zˤ t͡sʲʰ t͡sʲ t͡sʲʼ d͡zʲ s z sʲ zʲ ħ ʕ h ɾ̥̃ ɾ̃ ɾ̥̃ˤ ɾ̃ˤ l̥̃ l̃ lʲ̥̃ lʲ̃ ɾ̥ ɾ ɾ̥ˤ ɾˤ β̞̥ β̞ β̞ʲ̥ β̞ʲ l̥ l lʲ̥ lʲ] become rounded before a rounded consonant. Non-back palatal or velar stops or nasals become back; non-alveolar front consonants become non-front; bilabial approximants become non-bilabial velar or uvular back; [ħ ʕ] become [ɔ̥̯ˤ ɔ̯ˤ]; [h] become [w̥].
- Vowels [i ɘ ɔ ...] become nasal [ĩ ɘ̃ ɔ̃ ...] before a radical.
- Obstruents [c͡pʰ tʷʼ q ...] persistently assimilate in glottalisation to a following non-nasal consonant other than a resonant. Before an ejective stop, aspirated stops become unaspirated; non-pharyngealised voiced stops other than [gʷ ɢʷ] become non-glottalised pharyngealised; voiced front stops become non-front.
- Creaky-voiced stops [g͡b̟ˤ̰ dʷˤ̰ ɢʷ̰ ...] persistently become ejective [k͡p̟ˤʼ tʷˤʼ qʷʼ ...].
- Creaky-voiced obstruents [g͡b̟ˤ̰ gʷ̰ ɢʷˤ̰ ...] persistently become non-glottalised non-nasal implosives [g͡b̟ˤ gʷ ɢʷˤ ...]. Velar or uvular stops become non-implosive; obstruents other than stops become nasal resonant laterals; affricates become nasal resonant laterals.
- Mid-low palatalised uvular semivowels [ɛ̥̯̃ ɛ̯̃ ɛ̥̯ ɛ̯] become tense [ẽ̥̯ ẽ̯ e̥̯ e̯] after a high vowel or semivowel.
Some words
/pahɢ͡bˤa/ | [pɑɢ͡bˤɑ] |
/ku/ | [ku] |
/lupʲpɛp/ | [luppɛp] |
/jɛtʼlun/ | [jɛtʼl̥un] |
/lɔhd͡ziqɢ͡bˤa/ | [lɔd͡zɨɢ͡bɢ͡bˤɑ] |
/lɔɛ/ | [lɔɛ] |
/zɛptʼuh/ | [zɛpʼtʼũh] |
/pʲupɛk͡p/ | [pʲipɛk] |
/pɔk͡p/ | [pɔk] |
/hɛkʼla/ | [hɛkʼl̥a] |
/dɔhɔtʼ/ | [dɔ̃hɔtʼ] |
/pɛtʼqut͡s/ | [pɜqqut͡s] |
/hazup/ | [hazup] |
/iʕdˤɔ/ | [æ̃ʕdˤɔ] |
/jɔksag͡bˤ/ | [jɛksɑgˤ] |
/ɢ͡bakʼpup/ | [ɢ͡bɑk͡ppup] |
/lɛhi/ | [lɛ̃hi] |
/g͡bˤa/ | [g͡bˤa] |
/tʼutʼɛ/ | [tʼutʼɛ] |
/zicʼ/ | [zicʼ] |
/ɛtʼlɛ/ | [ɛtʼl̥ɛ] |
/ij̥ɔ/ | [ij̥ɛ] |
/jili/ | [jili] |
/la/ | [la] |
/ɢ͡bˤipjɛt/ | [ɢ͡bˤɛpʲj̥ɛt] |
/appat/ | [appat] |
/juplɛbˤ/ | [jipl̥æbˤ] |
/kʼɛβ̞ɔk/ | [kʼɛβ̞ɔk] |
/lɛlɛm/ | [lɛlɛm] |
/ɛkɛ/ | [ɛkɛ] |
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