Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C₁)V(R)(C₂)

C₁: a consonant
V: a vowel
R: a sonorant; i.e. one of /m n ɲ ɾ ɹ l w/
C₂: one of /m n ɲ p t ṯ k ɓ̰ ɗ̰ ɗ̰̱ s ʃ x xʷ ɾ ɹ l w/

Allophony

• Short non-creaky-voiced non-glottal fricative voiceless stops [p ṯ ɗ̥ ...] become voiced [b ḏ ɗ ...] between a voiced phone and a voiced phone.
• Coronal consonants [n ɗ̰ s ...] persistently assimilate in laminality to a following coronal consonant. Before an alveolar consonant, laminal obstruents become alveolar.
• Non-nasal consonants [p ɗ̻ ɬ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following obstruent or nasal. Before a voiceless obstruent, creaky-voiced implosives become non-creaky-voiced voiced.
• Non-lateral coronal obstruents other than [ʃ ʒ], i.e. [t̻ ɗ̻ t͡s̻ ...], persistently assimilate in sibilancy to a following coronal fricative. Before an obstruent sibilant other than a stop, non-creaky-voiced implosives become resonants; non-implosive non-affricate stops become affricates; creaky-voiced implosives become non-sibilant coronal non-creaky-voiced; [ɗ̱̥ ɗ̱] become [ɾ̥ ɾ]. Before a fricative lateral, obstruents other than stops become stops.
• [m n̻ n ɲ ɓ ɗ̻ ɗ ɗ̱ ɮ̻ z̻ ɮ z ʒ ɣ ɣʷ ɾ̻ ɾ ɹ̻ ɹ i u e o a] become creaky-voiced before a creaky-voiced implosive. Consonants other than non-nasal implosives become non-creaky-voiced; alveolar fricatives become resonants; resonants become obstruents or nasals; nasals become non-nasal; [ɣʷ] become [w]; [ɲ] become [ɗʲ̱]; [ʒ] become [ɾ].
• [ɗʲ̱] persistently become [ɗ̱] before a consonant.
• [p t̻ t ṯ k ɓ̥ ɓ ɓ̰ ɗ̻̥ ɗ̻ ɗ̰̻ ɗ̥ ɗ ɗ̰ ɗ̱̥ ɗ̱ ɗ̰̱ ɗʲ̱ t͡θ t͡s̻ t͡θ̺ t͡s t͡ʃ ɬ̻ ɮ̻ s̻ z̻ ɬ ɮ s z ʃ ʒ x ɣ xʷ ɣʷ] assimilate in glottalisation to a preceding obstruent or nasal. After a creaky-voiced implosive, voiced obstruents other than stops become non-glottalised; non-velar voiced obstruents other than stops become resonants; voiceless implosives become non-glottalised voiced; [ʒ] become [ɾ]; [ɣʷ] become [w].
• Non-sibilant coronal alveolar nasals [n̻ n] become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent or nasal.
• Non-back vowels [i e a ...] assimilate in frontness to a preceding consonant. After a front stop or nasal, lax vowels become non-low.
• [n̻ ṉ nʲ̱ t̻ t̻ʼ d̻ ṯ ṯʼ ḏ ɗ̻̥ ɗ̻ ɗ̰̻ ɗ̱̥ ɗ̱ ɗ̰̱ ɗʲ̱ ɗ̰ʲ̱ t͡θ t͡θʼ d͡ð t͡s̻ t͡s̻ʼ d͡z̻ t͡θ̺ t͡θ̺ʼ d͡ð̺ t͡ʃ t͡ʃʼ d͡ʒ ɬ̻ ɬ̻ʼ ɮ̻ s̻ s̻ʼ z̻ ʃ ʃʼ ʒ ɾ̻̥ ɾ̻ ɹ̻̥ ɹ̻ l̻̥ l̻] assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a following coronal obstruent other than a non-affricate stop or nasal. Before a palatoalveolar obstruent or nasal other than a non-affricate stop or nasal, apical affricates become alveolar; non-sibilant coronal affricates become sibilants; resonants become alveolar apical.
• [n̻ n̻ʲ ṉ nʲ̱ t̻ t̻ʼ d̻ ṯ ṯʼ ḏ ɗ̻̥ ɗ̻ ɗ̰̻ ɗ̻ʲ ɗ̰̻ʲ ɗ̱̥ ɗ̱ ɗ̰̱ ɗʲ̱ ɗ̰ʲ̱ t͡θ t͡θʼ d͡ð t͡s̻ t͡s̻ʼ d͡z̻ t͡θ̺ t͡θ̺ʼ d͡ð̺ t͡ʃ t͡ʃʼ d͡ʒ ɬ̻ ɬ̻ʼ ɮ̻ s̻ s̻ʼ z̻ ɬ̱ ɬ̱ʼ ɮ̱ ʃ ʃʼ ʒ ɾ̻̥ ɾ̻ ɹ̻̥ ɹ̻ l̻̥ l̻] persistently assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a following non-palatal or velar fricative. Before a palatoalveolar fricative, apical affricates become alveolar; resonants become alveolar apical; non-sibilant coronal affricates become sibilants.
• Front vowels [i e ɛ ...] become central [ɨ ɘ ɜ ...] before a velar semivowel.
• Non-glottalised non-glottal fricative resonants [ɾ̻̥ ɹ̻̥ ɹ ...] assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent.
• Non-nasal consonants [p ɗ̰̱ sʼ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following obstruent and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiced obstruent, non-implosive ejective obstruents become non-glottalised; alveolar glottalised obstruents other than stops become resonants; [xʷʼ] become [w]; [ɬ̱ʼ] become [ɭ̻]; [ʃʼ] become [ɾ]. Before a voiceless obstruent or pause, creaky-voiced implosives become non-glottalised voiced.
• Non-nasal consonants [p ɗ̰̱ sʼ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent or nasal. After a voiceless obstruent, creaky-voiced implosives become non-glottalised voiced. After a voiced obstruent or nasal, ejective obstruents become non-glottalised; coronal ejective fricatives become resonants; [ʃʼ] become [ɾ]; [ɬ̱ʼ] become [ɭ̻]; [xʷʼ] become [w].
• Non-nasal consonants [p ɗ̰̱ sʼ ...] assimilate in voice to a preceding obstruent or nasal. After a voiced obstruent or nasal, non-implosive ejective obstruents become non-glottalised; non-velar ejective fricatives become resonants; [ʃʼ] become [ɾ]; [ɬ̱ʼ] become [ɭ̻]; [xʷʼ] become [w]. After a voiceless obstruent, creaky-voiced implosives become non-glottalised voiced.
• Central vowels [ɨ ɘ ɜ̰ ...] become front [i e ɛ̰ ...] after a front stop or nasal. Low vowels become non-low.
• [p pʼ t̻ t̻ʼ t tʼ ṯ ṯʼ k kʼ ɓ̥ ɓ̰ ɗ̻̥ ɗ̰̻ ɗ̻ʲ̥ ɗ̰̻ʲ ɗ̥ ɗ̰ ɗ̱̥ ɗ̰̱ ɗʲ̱̥ ɗ̰ʲ̱ t͡θ t͡θʼ t͡s̻ t͡s̻ʼ t͡θ̺ t͡θ̺ʼ t͡s t͡sʼ t͡ʃ t͡ʃʼ ɬ̻ ɬ̻ʼ ɮ̻ s̻ s̻ʼ z̻ ɬ ɬʼ ɮ s sʼ z ɬ̱ ɬ̱ʼ ɮ̱ ʃ ʃʼ ʒ x xʼ ɣ xʷ xʷʼ ɣʷ] persistently assimilate in glottalisation to a following obstruent. Before a glottalised obstruent, voiced obstruents other than stops or [ɣʷ] become non-glottalised resonants; non-glottalised implosives become non-glottalised voiced; [ʒ] become [ɾ]; [ɮ̱] become [ɭ̻]; [ɣʷ] become [w].
• [ɲ] become [nʲ̱] before a palatoalveolar obstruent or nasal.

Some words

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