Phonemic inventory

Syllable structure

(C₁)V(C₂)

C₁: a consonant
V: a vowel
C₂: one of /n͡m̻ m n̻ t͡p̻ k͡p p t̻ k ʔ s̻ h ɾ͡ʙ̪̻̆ ɾ̻ l͡ʋ̻ ʋ l̻/

Allophony

• Obstruents [t͡p̻ t̻ t͡ʃ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following non-nasal consonant other than a resonant.
• Voiceless stops [t͡p̻ p k ...] persistently become aspirated [t͡p̻ʰ pʰ kʰ ...] before a glottal fricative.
• Consonants [n͡m̻ b s̻ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a preceding consonant other than a resonant. After a voiced obstruent or nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated; [ʔ] are deleted. After a voiceless consonant, nasals become non-nasal.
• Consonants [n͡m̻ d̻ ɾ͡ʙ̪̻̥̆ ...] persistently assimilate in voice to a following obstruent or nasal and become voiceless word-finally. Before a voiceless obstruent or pause, nasals become non-nasal. Before a voiced obstruent or nasal, aspirated consonants become unaspirated; [ʔ] are deleted.
• Aspirated stops [t͡p̻ʰ pʰ kʰ ...] become unaspirated [t͡p̻ p k ...].
• Coronal consonants [n͡m̻ t͡ʃʰ ɾ̻̥ ...] persistently assimilate in anteriority and retroflexion to a following obstruent sibilant. Before a palatoalveolar obstruent sibilant, [t͡p̻ʰ t͡p̻ d͡b̻] become [ɾ͡ʙ̪̱̥̆ ɾ͡ʙ̪̱̥̆ ɾ͡ʙ̪̱̆]; [t̻ʰ t̻ d̻] become [t͡ʃʰ t͡ʃ d͡ʒ].
• Non-sibilant coronal coronal stops or nasals [n͡m̻ ṉ d͡b̻ ...] are persistently deleted between an obstruent or nasal and a stop.
• Obstruents [t͡p̻ʰ p t͡s̻ʰ ...] persistently become glottalised [t͡pʼ̻ pʼ t͡sʼ̻ ...] before a non-nasal glottal stop. Aspirated stops become unaspirated; non-affricate voiced stops become implosives; [d͡z̻ d͡ʒ] become [z̻̰ ʒ̰].
• (191) Creaky-voiced obstruents other than stops [z̻̰ ʒ̰] persistently become non-glottalised non-nasal implosive fricatives [z˂̻ ʒ˂].
• Implosive fricatives [z˂̻ ʒ˂] persistently become resonants [ɾ̻ ɾ̱].
• Ejective fricatives [sʼ̻ ʃʼ] become affricates [t͡sʼ̻ t͡ʃʼ].
• Non-ejective voiced vowels and non-glottal stop voiced consonants other than palatoalveolar taps [n͡m̻ d͡z̻ ɭ͡ʋ ...] become creaky-voiced [ɗ͡ɓ̻ z̻̰ ɗ͡ɓ̢ ...] before a creaky-voiced obstruent. Sonorants become non-glottalised; stops other than obstruent sibilants become implosive; nasals become non-nasal; palatoalveolar approximant laterals become non-lateral taps; [l̻ l ɭ] become [ɗ̻ ɗ ɗ̢]; [l͡ʋ̻ l͡ʋ ɭ͡ʋ] become [ɗ͡ɓ̻ ɗ͡ɓ ɗ͡ɓ̢]; labiodental taps become bilabial stops or nasals; non-labial taps become obstruents or nasals; affricates become fricatives; [n͡m̱ ṉ] become [ɾ͡ʙ̪̱̆ ɾ̱]; [ʋ] become [ɓ].
• Palatal stops or nasals [ɲ͡m ɟ͡b ʄ͡ɓ ...] become alveopalatal [n͡m̱ʲ ɾ͡ʙ̪̱̆ ɾ͡ʙ̪̱̆ ...] before a palatoalveolar obstruent or nasal. Implosives become non-front resonants; non-implosive non-bilabial stops become affricates; [ʄ͡ɓ ʄ͡ɓ̰] become [ɾ͡ʙ̪̱̆ ɾ͡ʙ̪̱̆]; [c͡p ɟ͡b] become [ɾ͡ʙ̪̱̥̆ ɾ͡ʙ̪̱̆]; [ʄ̰] become [ɾ̱]; [c͡pʼ] become [ɕ͡fʼ].
• Unaspirated obstruents [t͡p̻ kʼ d͡z̻ ...] assimilate in voice to a preceding non-nasal consonant other than a resonant. After a voiced obstruent, ejective obstruents other than obstruent sibilants become implosive; [t͡sʼ̻ t͡ʃʼ] become [z̻̰ ʒ̰]; [t͡ɕʼ] become [ɾ̱]; [ɕ͡fʼ] become [ɾ͡ʙ̪̱̆]. After a voiceless consonant other than a resonant, implosive obstruents become non-implosive.
• Palatoalveolar stops or nasals [n͡m̱ ṉʲ d͡ʒ ...] become non-affricate non-coronal palatal [ɲ͡m ɲ ɟ ...] before a palatal stop or nasal.
• Non-retroflex coronal consonants [n͡m̻ t͡ʃʰ ɾ͡ʙ̪̱̺̥̆ ...] persistently become retroflex [ɳ͡m̻ ʈ͡ʂ̻ʰ ɽ͡ʙ̪̥̆ ...] after a retroflex consonant. Alveopalatal obstruents or nasals become non-front.
• Nasals [n͡m̻ n͡m̱ʲ ɳ̻ ...] become nasals and assimilate in place of articulation to a following obstruent or nasal.
• [ɲ͡m ɲ ŋ c͡p c͡pʼ ɟ͡b cʰ c cʼ ɟ kʰ k kʼ g ʄ͡ɓ ʄ͡ɓ̰ ʄ ʄ̰ ɠ̰] become rounded after a high rounded vowel. Bilabial stops or nasals become unrounded; non-bilabial palatal stops or nasals become velar; bilabial stops or nasals become velar.
• Rule (191) becomes inactive.
• Obstruents [t͡p̻ʰ c t͡s̻ʰ ...] persistently assimilate in glottalisation to a preceding non-nasal consonant other than a resonant. After a glottalised consonant, aspirated stops become unaspirated; non-implosive non-affricate voiced stops become implosive; [d͡z̻ d͡ʒ] become [z̻̰ ʒ̰]; [ɖ͡ʐ̻] become [ɽ̻̰]; [d͡ʑ] become [ɾ̱].
• Creaky-voiced consonants other than implosive obstruents [z̻̰ ʐ̻̰ ʒ̰ ɽ̻̰] persistently become non-glottalised [z̻ ʐ̻ ʒ ɽ̻].
• Before a coronal approximant, taps become non-coronal approximants; non-labial voiceless taps become glottal fricatives; labiodental-retroflex taps become non-retroflex non-coronal approximants; [ɽ̻̰] become [ʔ].
• Non-back vowels [i ɛ æ̰ ...] become rounded [y œ œ̰ ...] after a rounded stop or nasal. Low vowels become non-low.
• Coronal consonants [n͡m̻ ɗ̻ ɾ͡ʙ̪̥̆ ...] persistently assimilate in laminality to a following coronal consonant. Before an apical consonant, [ɽ̻̰] become [ɗ̢].

Some words

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